Admirable and Execrable-Jesuits

Garry Wills FEBRUARY 9, 2017 ISSUE
The Berrigan Letters: Personal Correspondence Between Daniel and Philip Berrigan
edited by Daniel Cosacchi and Eric Martin
Orbis, 340 pp., $30.00 (paper)
American Jesuits and the World: How an Embattled Religious Order Made Modern Catholicism Global
by John T. McGreevy
Princeton University Press, 315 pp., $35.00
Edmund Campion: A Scholarly Life
by Gerard Kilroy
Routledge, 458 pp., $143.00
Edmund Campion
by Evelyn Waugh
Ignatius, 216 pp., $16.95 (paper)
The First Jesuits
by John W. O’Malley, S.J.
Harvard University Press, 457 pp., $31.00 (paper)
The Jesuits: A History From Ignatius to the Present
by John W. O’Malley, S.J.
Rowman and Littlefield, 139 pp., $22.00
The Mission: A Film Journal
by Daniel Berrigan, S.J.
Harper and Row, 160 pp. (1986)
The Pope and Mussolini: The Secret History of Pius XI and the Rise of Fascism in Europe
by David I. Kertzer
Random House, 549 pp., $20.00 (paper)

Jesuits have never been shy about naming schools and other institutions after “Ours” (as they
refer to each other)—Loyola, Xavier, Gonzaga, Canisius, Marquette. I went to Campion High
School, where I was on the Bellarmine Debating Society, before entering St. Stanislaus
Seminary—all three of them named for Jesuit saints. So one might have expected the first
Jesuit pope to take his papal name from a Jesuit saint; there are, conveniently, two called
Francis—Saint Francis Xavier and Saint Francis Borja (general of the order from 1565 to
1572). But Jorge Bergoglio took his name from Francis of Assisi, who was not a Jesuit, not a
pope, and not even a priest. This is not
surprising, since Bergoglio was not on good
terms with his fellow Jesuits before his
election to the papacy—which was probably
why he was made a cardinal by Pope John
Paul II, who despised Jesuits. John
O’Malley, S.J., the great Renaissance
historian, suspects that the pope thought he
was not getting “a real Jesuit.”
Despite all this, some are trying to make the
pope a “typical Jesuit,” though that is a
mythical beast. There are Jesuits of all sorts,
some to be revered, some reviled; some
good, others bad. A good one died last year, the peace activist Daniel Berrigan, S.J.—though
some thought that he, too, was not a real Jesuit. One of his superiors said he was “in the order,
but not of it.” If I were looking for a bad Jesuit, I would name Pietro Tacchi Venturi, S.J., the
secret intermediary between Pope Pius XI and Mussolini—a thorough anti-Semite, an
authoritarian schemer, and a sexual adventurer. Fortunately, there are recent books that bring
these two men into better focus—The Berrigan Letters (correspondence between the brothers
Daniel and Philip Berrigan) and The Pope and Mussolini, by David I. Kertzer. Tacchi
Venturi figures largely in Kertzer’s book, and is given solo treatment in a forthcoming book
by Kevin Madigan of the Harvard Divinity School.
Kertzer showed that there was a knot of powerful Jesuits in Rome before World War II who
were enthusiastically anti-Semitic and pro-Fascist—the Jesuit Superior General Włodzimierz
Ledóchowski, S.J., the editor of the Vatican newspaper Civilta Cattolica Enrico Rosa, S.J.,
Mussolini’s promoter Tacchi Venturi, S.J., and the Gregorian University theologian Gustav
Gundlach, S.J. These four men conspired to quash Pius XI’s attempt to issue an encyclical
against anti-Semitism.
Ironically, the idea for Pius XI’s encyclical came from another Jesuit, John LaFarge, S.J., an
American who had published the book Interracial Justice in 1937. While ministering as a
young priest to blacks on the Eastern Shore of Maryland, LaFarge was shocked to discover
that his order had held slaves there. We have heard recently of the way Georgetown
University saved itself financially by selling 272 slaves in 1838. American Jesuits were major
slaveholders. The oldest, most beautiful building in the Missouri seminary I attended had
been built in 1840 (just two years after Georgetown’s slave sale), using slave labor.
Pius XI, a voracious reader, read LaFarge’s book at a time when he was becoming anxious
over Mussolini’s anti-Jewish laws. He asked LaFarge to draft an encyclical for him on
European animus against Jews, on the lines of his book on American animus against blacks.
He told LaFarge to keep the project secret, since he knew there would be attempts to block it
in his own Vatican—the pope did not even disclose it to his secretary of state, Eugenio
Pacelli, the man who finally destroyed the draft encyclical when Pius died in 1939 and Pacelli
became Pius XII.
eople familiar with more recent progressive Jesuits may be shocked to learn how
reactionary many of them were in the 1930s. But even earlier, in the 1890s, Superior General
Luis Martin, S.J., and the editor of Civilta Cattolica, Salvatore Brandi, S.J., were warm allies
of Pope Leo XIII in his condemnation of religious pluralism as a heretical “Americanism.”
The liberal archbishop John Ireland, a frequent target of Brandi’s criticisms, told a friend,
“The Jesuits and their ilk are killing the church.”
When considering Jesuit history in general, one must make one large distinction—between
pre-suppression Jesuits (1540–1773) and post-suppression Jesuits (1814–present). In the first
period, Jesuits were often fruitful troublemakers in theology, education, and politics, which
made various local authorities, both lay and clerical, expel them—until, at last, the Franciscan
pope Clement XIV yielded to royal foes of the Jesuits and abolished the order. When a later
pope, Pius VII, revived it in 1814, the church was still in a state of frightened reaction to the
French Revolution, a fearful attitude the revived Jesuits followed and enforced for almost a
century. A pope had suppressed them once, and could do it again.
For much of that second period, Jesuits were not so much good or bad as mediocre. An
indication of that is John McGreevy’s dutiful new history of mainly lackluster Jesuits in
America. The book has no direct mention of the fact that Jesuits were major slaveholders. It
just admits that Jesuits by and large supported the Confederacy and that a man to whom
McGreevy devotes an entire chapter of his book, John Bapst, S.J., refused to admit the
Catholic convert Orestes Brownson into a Jesuit seminary because Brownson was an
abolitionist.
American Jesuits of that time often reflected the defensive posture of an immigrant church
(according to McGreevy, “of the twenty-five founding presidents of Jesuit colleges in the
nineteenth century all but two were born outside the United States”) and reacted to anti-
Catholic prejudice (Harvard Law School under President Charles Eliot refused to accept
graduates of Jesuit colleges). One of the great Jesuit causes in this period was protecting
Catholic children from the King James Bible, which was on the Index of (papally) Forbidden
Books. In the spirit of Leo XIII’s condemnation of “Americanism,” students at the Jesuit
school of theology in Woodstock, Maryland, were forbidden to celebrate the Fourth of July.
Like other American clergymen, Jesuits carved out a niche in the New World by building
churches, staffing schools, conducting retreats and novenas, praying for miracles, and
celebrating relics. Jesuits were particularly focused on a miracle to which McGreevy devotes
another chapter—a miraculous cure in Louisiana that was used to canonize an
undistinguished Belgian, John Berchmans, who in 1621 died at Rome’s Jesuit seminary, age
twenty-two. The only thing he had to recommend him was posthumous miracles.
John Bapst, who protected his seminary from Orestes Brownson’s abolitionism, avidly
collected and displayed over four hundred relics of saints, including “tiny fragments” from
Berchmans’s body, along with “a nail that touched a nail used on the Cross.” Of course there
were individual Jesuits of great compassion and self-sacrifice during this time. One of the
wisest men I have ever met was Joseph Fisher, S.J., the superior of the Jesuits’ Missouri
Province when I was in the seminary there. After he gave up that office, he went to Belize
(then British Honduras) to build homes for the poor with his own hands, a mission that vicepresidential
candidate Tim Kaine spent time in years later. But histories like McGreevy’s are
not built from such inconspicuous materials.
ohn O’Malley argues that Jesuits after their restoration had lost the institutional memory of
the adventurous early Society, whose vivid personnel he evoked in his 1993 book, The First
Jesuits. The order was reborn sclerotic. But in his later book The Jesuits (2014), O’Malley
shows how the early spirit has been revived, based on better study of retrieved archives. For a
time, the restored Jesuits had half-believed in the public image of the order’s founder, Ignatius
Loyola, as a military man who marshaled Jesuits as a hard-drilled army to defend the pope
and fight Luther. But Ignatius, far from being this partisan disciplinarian of the soul, was a
mystic with visions like those of another former soldier, Francis of Assisi. Francis and
Ignatius both began their religious strivings by going on pilgrimage to the Holy Land.
When Ignatius had his first few followers, they thought they would begin their ministry in
Jerusalem, for which they asked the pope’s blessing. Ignatius did not see his group as
mounting some mass attack on European Protestants. He was for scattering them off. It was a
centrifugal band, not a centripetal one. He sent his beloved fellow Basque Francis Xavier far
off to convert “pagans” in India and Japan. Naturally, such a footloose body, not subordinated
to bishop or abbot, not tied to cathedral or monastery, would be suspect to some. Ignatius
tried to forestall such resistance by pledging his men to follow the pope’s directives on their
missions and by encouraging his followers to “think with the church.” And he made a
deepening of spirituality the preparation for spreading the faith.
He did this through his Spiritual Exercises (exercitia means “workout”), a monthlong retreat
made one-on-one with a personal trainer. The Exercises are now treated as a kind of spiritual
boot camp to be experienced by incoming Jesuit seminarians in a group under one director—I
went through it with about sixty fellow seminarians in a class swollen by 1950s religiosity.
Ignatius, by contrast, thought of the month-long sessions as tailored to a single person—the
“exercitant”—with his own (separate) director. This was a prolonged form of self-exploration,
somewhat like the relation of psychoanalyst with patient. Ignatius even treated “spiritual
discernment” as working through patterns of “consolation” and “desolation.”
The program was flexible, tailored to the pace, needs, and progress of the individual, to
accord with his particular “age, education, and ability.” Speaking of the four weeks
envisioned, O’Malley writes:
“Week” was actually an indeterminate period to be expanded or contracted according to
the needs of the individual and the matter under consideration, so long as in their
entirety the four Weeks did not exceed about thirty days.
The Exercises lie behind the modern practice of a “retreat”—withdrawal from one’s daily
routine and patterns to consider their broader setting, possibilities, or shortcomings. Corporate
and legislative bodies now encourage such retreats for secular purposes. Ignatius, of course,
wanted to have a person reconsider his whole relationship with God.
In the first “week” one considers one’s isolation from God (which is the essence of sin). In
Ignatius’s reorientation of his own life, on which he modeled the Exercises, he was brought to
the edge of suicide in this contemplation of his isolation from God—a development the
director must guard against. But relief comes in the second “week,” when one is called to
enter into Jesus’s early life, imagining each event by a “composition of place” that makes the
exercitant present with Jesus at every scene. The third “week” takes one through the passion
and death of Jesus, and the fourth through his risen life in the church. Daniel Berrigan was
never more Jesuit than when he responded to a friend who had asked him for advice: “Make
your story fit into the story of Jesus. Ask yourself: does your life make sense in light of the
life of Jesus?”
he Society of Jesus (Compagnia di Gesu) is based as an order on the closeness to Jesus
wrought by the Exercises. Compagnia does not mean “company” in a military sense but
comradeship. Other orders are named for their founders—Augustinians, Benedictines,
Franciscans, Dominicans. But Jesuits were never Ignatians. They were comrades of Jesus.
Some thought it arrogant to claim such closeness, but Jesus said that what was done to his
“brothers” was done to him (Matthew 25:40). Though a profession of closeness to Jesus is
common among evangelicals, Catholics have tended to use “Christ” more often than “Jesus,”
since Christ (anointed messiah) is a title, not a personal name, and the title is more
appropriate to a hierarchical church of many officials. This is one of many ways that Jesuits
seemed too like the “individualist” reformers against whom they were supposed to be pitted.
The post-suppression Jesuits for a long time used the Exercises in a mechanistic way. They
even conceived of Jesuit training as the Exercises writ large—a long retreat of fourteen years
instead of one month. The novitiate, a two-year withdrawal from “secular” life (no
newspapers or “nonspiritual” books) was like Week One. Away from “secular” books, we
novices read vapid saints’ lives, heavy on miracle stories and repentance for sin.
After that, aspiring Jesuits studied the liberal arts for two years (juniorate), then philosophy
for three years (philosophate), after which they taught high school for three years (regency),
Houghton Library, Harvard University
‘Edmund Campion on the Rack’; engraving by
Niccolò Circignani from Ecclesiae Anglicanae
Trophaea, 1584
then studied theology for three years (theologate), at the
end of which one was finally ordained a priest. But even
then there was a further year (tertianship), taking the
month of Spiritual Exercises again and trying out life as a
priest.
This grueling process has been shortened and reconsidered
in the modern order, where there are fewer Jesuits to be
trained and they often enter at a later age. Dan Berrigan,
who did the fourteen-year program, looked back on its
expenditure of a person’s twenties-and-a-little-more as a
waste of the idealistic youth he encountered in the peace
movement and other causes. It also put off to the end real
study of the New Testament (theology) that should be the
motivation of a Christian. The Jesuits’ revised training is
closer to Ignatius’s way of testing novices in active work
with the poor, the sick, the disadvantaged.
When I asked Dan Berrigan if he thought of himself as a
Jesuit, he answered in ways that showed he went back to pre-suppression days, closer to
Ignatius. He has written, “We latter-day Jesuits, lesser sons of giants, are grateful for a mere
gleam of greatness.” He mentioned Jesuits like Sebastien Rale, S.J., who protected Native
Americans in the eighteenth century from tricks played on them to purchase their land.
Puritans in New England put a price on Rale’s head, which was collected by bounty hunters
bringing them Rale’s scalp. He also admired the Jesuits who used settlements called
“Reductions” in eighteenth-century Paraguay to protect Native Americans from Portuguese
slave raiders—Berrigan served as an adviser to the movie The Mission, made of this story by
Roland Joffe in 1986. Berrigan described this experience in a book whose dedication reads
“To the Jesuits for life.”
When Berrigan went to Colombia to make the movie and met Jeremy Irons, who plays the
spiritual leader of the Reduction, he took him aside to give him an abbreviated (thirty-sixhour)
version of the Spiritual Exercises, and they continually talked about Jesuit spirituality in
the three months they spent together. The movie has its own take on the good Jesuit/bad Jesuit
phenomenon. The bad Jesuit is played by Robert De Niro, a military man who cannot give up
his violent ways after he joins the order. Joffe consulted with Berrigan on the history of the
Jesuits, and Berrigan even persuaded Joffe to change the ending of Robert Bolt’s script, to
strike just the right blend of resistance and nonviolence.
The movie cast knew about Berrigan’s avoidance of arrest while the FBI hunted him for four
months in 1970 for destroying draft files, and they compared this with the story they were
making of the way Jesuits defied slave hunters in eighteenth-century Paraguay. J. Edgar
Hoover put Berrigan on his Most Wanted list, but Berrigan kept popping up at antiwar sites
and writing to various outlets. (His “Letter from the Underground” appeared in these pages,
August 13, 1970.) An exasperated William F. Buckley even frothed at the FBI for not nabbing
Berrigan: “It was much likelier that you would see him on Johnny Carson’s show, thumbing
his nose at American jurisprudence, than behind the bars he belonged behind.”
his escapade reminded me of another Jesuit’s evasion of a manhunt—Edmund Campion’s
underground ministry to Catholics in Elizabethan England. Campion, too, infuriated the
authorities with writings from the underground, and he avoided capture for a full year, by a
manhunt far more extensive than that of 1970. Berrigan was justifiably unwilling to compare
himself with Campion; he, after all, was not going to be killed when caught. Besides,
Campion was an academic star (which Berrigan surely was not) and a renowned figure
throughout Europe. Another reason Berrigan shied away from comparison with the
Elizabethan Jesuits is that he knew some of them were contriving the overthrow of the queen,
while his actions were not meant to overthrow the American government but to persuade it to
give up its nuclear war plans. I argued that Campion was not one of the Jesuit traitors, but
Berrigan still did not want to pursue the subject.
Still, I remained interested in Campion—and not simply because I went to a high school
named for him. I read there Evelyn Waugh’s well-wrought and moving biography of
Campion. In fact it was one of two books that prompted me to enroll in a Jesuit seminary.
(The other was James Broderick, S.J.’s two-volume life of Cardinal Robert Bellarmine, S.J.)
Waugh took the basic facts of his Campion book from Richard Simpson’s life of Campion
(1876) while discarding Simpson’s thesis.
Simpson was a Victorian Catholic layman, the close friend of John Henry Newman and Lord
Acton. The three of them collaborated on The Rambler, a liberal Catholic journal that
opposed the ultramontanism (papal-centeredness) of the official church in nineteenth-century
England. When The Rambler came under fire from Cardinal Nicholas Wiseman, who
complained of it to Rome, the three men began a successor journal, The Home and Foreign
Review, each serving as editor in turn, until it, too, was condemned. After the closing of the
Review, Simpson concentrated on his life of Campion, a well-researched volume with a
polemic subtext. Simpson argues that Campion, who was opposed to the Vatican attempts to
overthrow the queen, came back to England to serve Catholics with the sacraments, but
disagreed with the Jesuit he accompanied, Robert Persons, S.J., who meant to stir up
rebellion. Simpson says that this division in the goals of the mission rightly doomed it to
failure.
Waugh began his Campion book with a prolonged sneer at Queen Elizabeth, something
Campion would never have done. Waugh, a recent Catholic convert when he wrote the book
(1935), sympathized entirely with the ultramontanists Simpson was fighting—he writes that
he will omit all of Simpson’s “Cis-Alpine pleading…tedious to modern readers.” Now comes
a major biography of Campion by Gerard Kilroy, who discards Waugh and vindicates
Bob Fitch Photography Archive/Stanford University Libraries
Catonsville Nine members Mary Moylan and Daniel Berrigan
leaving the Baltimore federal courthouse at the time of their trial for
burning draft files to protest the Vietnam War, October 1968
Simpson. Kilroy calls his book Edmund Campion: A Scholarly Life, and I took that at first to
mean that Kilroy’s own book is a scholarly effort—and it certainly is. Kilroy spent years
searching public archives and private collections for every aspect of Campion’s life and times.
(Unfortunately he whips up a blizzard of evidence, which he does not sort out in easily
assimilable ways.) But no, the title means that Campion led (or wanted to lead) a scholar’s
life—until it was broken off by the pope and his Jesuit superior, Everard Mercurian.
Kilroy shows that Campion was happiest during his six years as a scholar at the Jesuit college
(Clementinum) in Prague. Kilroy, drawing on letters by and about Campion at this period,
says it was “the most demanding, and the most glamorous, phase of his life.” This is what
Waugh calls the humdrum time when Campion submitted to “the sombre routine of the
pedagogue.” Campion was teaching Cicero to his Latin class and Aristotle to his Greek class,
and putting on plays of his own composition for the citizens of Prague and for the lively court
of Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II, where he became a favorite. Waugh, following
hagiographical convention, says that Campion was eager to go back to a martyr’s death in
England. Kilroy proves that Campion left Prague reluctantly, delayed his trip to Rome after
being summoned, tried to get the pope to loosen the obligation of English Catholics to deny
the legitimacy of Elizabeth, and refused to be the leader of the mission to England. His letters
show that he feared his own cowardice (ignavia) would disgrace him.
Campion was no coward, as he would
prove. But neither was he a fool. And he
was being sent on a fool’s errand. The
Jesuits were to go back to their native
England on the pretense that supplying the
sacraments to Catholics had nothing to do
with subversion of the queen’s Protestant
government. In 1570, Pope Pius V, in the
bull Regnans in Excelsis, had
excommunicated Queen Elizabeth and
released Catholics from obedience to her,
hoping that would end her reign. Waugh
treats Pius V, a Dominican ex-Inquisitor, as
a holy fool with supernatural guidance. But
ten years later, when the queen was not
unseated, Campion tried to get a later pope, Gregory XIII, to ease the demand that Catholics
disobey her. The pope could not do that, Kilroy says, because he had already dispatched
troops that were invading Ireland and he could not imperil their cause. Kilroy calls Campion’s
assignment
the criminal folly of sending the English Jesuit mission into a country that was already
facing the two greatest horrors for the Elizabethan state: rebellion and invasion under a
papal banner…. When Campion landed in England, he might as well have walked onto a
battlefield carrying [nothing but] an umbrella.
What Waugh did not see (or want to) is how Simpson “carefully distinguished Campion’s
spiritual aims from the political aims of [seminary director Richard] Allen, Persons, and the
papacy itself.” Campion died not for what he did, but for what his superiors did.
He knew that he would not only suffer a horrible death but would be tortured before being
killed. All Europe was aware that Britain had recently resorted to torture, which was against
the common law and British practice, because the government was hysterical with panic
owing to the papal-inspired threat from “the enemy within.” Legal authorities like Francis
Bacon and Edward Coke justified this, as John Yoo and David Addington did in the Bush
administration, on the grounds that the urgency to know what terrorists were planning was
more important than gathering evidence for any trial of a captive (since coerced testimony
cannot be used at trial). In Bacon’s words, “Torture is used for discovery and not for
evidence.”
When Campion was captured after a year ministering secretly to Catholic Englishmen, he was
given harsher and longer tortures than others. He was the biggest fish caught in Elizabethan
nets. (There would be a bigger one under King James, when Henry Garnet, S.J., was executed
for his involvement in the Gunpowder Plot.) He was important enough to be secretly taken to
the Lord Keeper’s residence, York House, where the queen personally offered him a bishopric
in the Church of England if he would recant.
When that did not work, the tortures were resumed. He was racked so forcibly as to dislocate
his limbs—at his later hearings, he could not raise his arm to take an oath. His bandaged
hands could not turn book pages because “nails were thrust between his nails and the quick.”
To give Campion’s torturers immunity from punishment, they had to have a special warrant
from the court. The Earl of Leicester, who had favored Campion when he was proctor at
Oxford, issued four such warrants (more than for any other prisoner) to torture Campion
repeatedly.
In his agony, Campion did give up, at intervals, information about the Catholic houses that
had sheltered him while he was underground. Simpson and Waugh claim he revealed nothing
of significance, but Kilroy shows that the houses he named were ransacked, for Catholic
books and other clues, and their owners were interrogated about other Catholic activities.
Campion repented afterward that he had named names, which Simpson and Waugh minimize
as his saintly exaggeration of slight failings.
Kilroy rightly takes Campion at his word—he did expose his protectors, and the torturers had
reason to think they had succeeded in uncovering Catholic plots. This vindicated their
reliance on torture, perhaps the worst result of Campion’s lapse. He clung to the comfort that
he had not given up any information that he received in sacramental confession, but he did
unleash the police on all the houses he had mentioned. He is heroic enough that he needs no
whitewashing.
Campion suffered the usual death for convicted traitors. He and two others were didactically
dismembered at the Tyburn gallows—hanged, their hearts ripped out, heads axed off, then
both arms and both legs—muscular men required in the chopping. The scaffold was slopped
and slippery with blood and human meat. Men were set to guard the mess, since Catholics
would try to take off relics (a man, in the melee, got one of Campion’s fingers). Some
Catholics on the scene were inspired by Campion’s courage. The late Joseph Kerman
conjectured, in these pages, that the great musician William Byrd was one of them, since he
paid tribute to Campion in later compositions.
errigan was no Campion. His life and work are not on that scale. Still, America magazine
was probably right to give him its 1988 Campion Award for literary-spiritual excellence. Like
Campion, Berrigan was a poet and playwright. Like Campion, he feared his own ignavia.
Campion tried to avoid going to England. Berrigan, urged by his priest-brother Phil to join
him and three others in destroying Baltimore draft files, refused to go with them. But he
regretted that decision, and went with them a year later, when the Baltimore Four became the
Catonsville Nine. After that, the brothers were reciprocally supportive in many actions.
Some of their critics may expect the brothers’ extensive correspondence, just published, to
talk of plots against the government. In fact, they trade encouragement, consolation, and
prayers. Some letters are sent into or out of prison, depending on which brother was where
after a demonstration (the letters even go from one prison to another when both are serving
time). The two men bolster each other’s resolve. They consider how to put up with their
bullying father. They coordinate support for their pious mother. Each admires the other’s
different talents and endeavors. Dan did not go to jail as much as Phil, and praised what he
felt was his younger brother’s greater courage. In Colombia to work on the movie The
Mission, he worries about Phil’s latest trial: “I keep hoping, in my lily-livered way, that he is
not locked up.”
As for the burning of draft files, to prevent sending young men into the sinkhole of a war in
Vietnam, that makes me think of the crowd of Catholics who, at the death of the inquisitorpope
Paul IV in 1559, broke into the office of the Roman Inquisition and destroyed its files,
sparing the victims of persecution. The Berrigan brothers’ later destruction of nuclear
symbols makes me think of a story about Pedro Arrupe, S.J., who was the superior general of
the order from 1965 to 1983. O’Malley says that Arrupe, a Basque like Ignatius, “became
perhaps the most beloved and admired general of the Society with the exception of Ignatius.”
The editor of Berrigan’s writings, John Dear, reports that a Canadian priest recognized Arrupe
in Rome and greeted him. Arrupe asked if the priest was a Jesuit. No. Did he know any
Jesuits? Yes, Dan Berrigan. Arrupe said, “Daniel Berrigan is the most faithful Jesuit of his
generation.” What makes this story plausible for me is Arrupe’s hatred of nuclear arms. He
was present at Hiroshima when the bomb was dropped, and he used his early medical training
to work with victims there.
The Berrigans seem also to fit Pope Francis’s ideal of priests who work with the poor and
excluded, “on the margins.” Phil Berrigan joined the Josephite order, not the Jesuits, because
their mission was especially to African-Americans. He and Daniel marched with Martin
Luther King Jr. and worked in hospitals for the poor. When the AIDS crisis hit in the 1980s,
Daniel was one of the first priests who ministered to its victims. He admitted that he hated
going to prison, but he felt that he had to go there, since that is where he and Phil met Jesus in
“the sisters and brothers of the divine Prisoner.”
When Phil died in 2002, I went back to Baltimore for his funeral. It was in a rundown area
where Phil had been a pastor, and blacks came out for it after the workday. They could see his
body laid in a bare wood box. Dan conducted the funeral Mass and preached the homily,
telling the story of Lazarus as a sign of life rising out of deathlike conditions. Looking at
people like Berrigan and Arrupe and Francis, I think it safe to say we live in an era of good
Jesuits. Now there are some giants on the shoulders of giants.

Garry Wills and Rev. James Martin, S.J. APRIL 25, 2002 ISSUE
To the Editors:
In his otherwise fair and balanced review of Passionate Uncertainty: Inside the American
Jesuits, by Peter McDonough and Eugene C. Bianchi [NYR, March 28], Garry Wills makes
three serious errors.
The first is his uncritical acceptance of the book’s deeply flawed methodology. Mr. Wills
terms the inclusion of former Jesuits in the survey “brilliant.” But in a study of the current
Society of Jesus, the fact that almost half of those interviewed were former Jesuits (206 out of
430) renders any conclusions based on the data largely useless. In fact, McDonough and
Bianchi note that many of the former Jesuits interviewed departed the order in the 1960s and
1970s. Their observations about Jesuit life, therefore, are confined to experiences from thirty
or forty years ago. And while these experiences may be of interest as a historical backdrop,
they cannot be used to draw accurate conclusions about the Society of Jesus today. Also, in
their “Notes on Methodology,” the authors admit to using “snowball” sampling, that is,
relying on interviewees to recommend others for the survey. This method guarantees a biased
sample of like-minded individuals—for example, disgruntled former Jesuits. It is, in short,
about as far as one can get from a “random” or “representative” sample.
Second, when discussing the presence of gay men in the Society of Jesus in the United States,
Mr. Wills writes: “If the general [that is, the superior general of the Jesuits] should try to
enforce the papal ban on any homosexual activity, the already thin ranks could be
considerably reduced—gays might leave in droves….” Certainly there are gay Jesuits; no one
disputes this. But Mr. Wills’s statement assumes, wrongly, that being a gay Jesuit means, ipso
facto, that one is sexually active. This is false: the vast majority of gay Jesuits—priests,
scholastics, and brothers—keep their vow of chastity. McDonough and Bianchi simply do not
provide any reliable data to support Mr. Wills’s speculative claim.
Third, when discussing the future activities of a religious order faced with declining numbers,
Mr. Wills states, “No serious thought has been given to what may be necessary steps—like
divesting themselves of some if not most of their schools.” This is perhaps the easiest error to
refute. The Jesuit General Congregations, Jesuit superiors and rectors, Jesuit provincials, and
probably every Jesuit in this country have done almost nothing but offer themselves to
“serious thought” about what the future will hold, or to use a more religious image, how we
should respond to the “signs of the times.” Reflecting on the current situation in light of the
gospel in order to plan for the future is a hallmark of Jesuit spirituality. Whether or not Mr.
Wills agrees with these plans is another matter. But at the very least, as a former Jesuit, Mr.
Wills should know that serious thought is one thing of which we have not divested ourselves.
(Rev.) James Martin, S.J.
Associate Editor
America,New York City
Garry Wills replies:
Father Martin says that I make three “serious errors” when I simply relay the findings of the
authors whose book I was reviewing. What exactly are my (our) errors?
(1) It is said I rely on the views of “disgruntled former Jesuits.” Father Martin must not have
read the interviews. Most of the former Jesuits express continuing respect for the order (as do
I). In fact, they seem generally as gruntled as priests still in the order. If the former Jesuits’
views come from “thirty or forty years ago,” that makes all the more striking their general
congruence with the views of those still in the order. As I said in the review, this shows the
wisdom of canvassing both groups of men.
(2) It is said that the general of the order is satisfied that his gay priests are sexually inactive.
But: The papal position, recently voiced by the pope’s press secretary, is that gays do not
belong in the priesthood. And: Even if gays are sexually quiescent, many interviewed in the
book say that the gays’ subculture makes heterosexual Jesuits uncomfortable and has caused
some to leave. And: If the gays are sexually abstinent, why have so many died from or
suffered from AIDS?
(3) I hope Father Martin is right about the order’s long-term planning, but few of those
interviewed in the book are aware of this. Father Martin says that I (i.e., the book’s authors)
commit “the easiest error to refute.” But he does not refute it. He might do so if he could
point to a single document by Jesuit officials that seriously proposes (for instance) divesting
themselves of their schools. Can he?

Review: "American Jesuits and the World"

Jul 19, 2016

by Michael Sean Winters

John McGreevy has joined the global history parade with a book on a topic that is long overdue: American Jesuits and the World: How an Embattled Religious Order Made Modern Catholicism Global. This is a very enjoyable book to read as McGreevy paints five historical sketches of nineteenth century Jesuits, about whom too little is known and whose lives were fascinating, conflicted and important.

There is a fine opening chapter that looks at the rebirth of the Society of Jesus in 1814, the subsequent expulsions of Jesuits from various countries mid-century when liberal regimes, correctly, saw Jesuits as their enemies, and the sometimes fertile soil of anti-Catholicism in the U.S. and how the Jesuits epitomized here, as in Europe, a threat to rampant ideas of nation and freedom. These are the issues that will frame the lives he catalogues through the rest of the book.

McGreevy’s first portrait looks at Fr. John Bapst, the Swiss born Jesuit who fled his native country after the army of the Protestant cantons defeated that of the Catholics in 1847. “As Swiss liberals denounced the Jesuits, and mobs looted Jesuit residences, defaced church walls, and destroyed Jesuit libraries,” writes McGreevy, “Jesuits found their suspicions of modernity confirmed.”

Arriving in America to minister to the Penobscot Indians, Babst walked in the footsteps of an earlier Jesuit, Sebastian Rale, who had founded a mission in the late seventeenth century, and was killed by New England militia in 1724. Like his predecessor, and Jesuits around the globe, Pabst dedicated himself to learning the natives’ language. He tended 33 missions spread throughout Maine. He also ministered to the increasing tide of European immigrants from Ireland, and France. In 1852, Babst completed St. Joseph’s Catholic Church in Ellsworth, Maine, and “on the Fourth of July that year, the usual town celebration culminated with a procession up the main street to the church door. Inside, town notables read the Declaration of Independence, the town’s most prominent Protestant minister, Congregationalist Sewell Tenney, offered a blessing, and a local lawyer gave the day’s main address which included an expression of sympathy for ‘oppressed Ireland. Her only crime is proximity to England.’”

Two years later, Fr. Bapst asked the school board in Ellsworth to grant the public school’s Catholic students an exemption from reading the King James Bible then in use. The request was met with a series of threats and attacks, culminating in his being tarred and feathered that autumn. Protestant ministers, ex-Catholics (and especially ex-priests), and other Nativist agitators submitted articles to newspapers, started lecture tours, stirred up trouble: The Know-Nothings were in the ascendant and the idyll of liberty that some Jesuits has discerned in the United States, in contrast to the persecutions they had fled in Europe, vanished in a sea of anti-Catholicism. Within that sea, there emerged in Protestant circles a commitment to religious liberty but its meaning and reach then, as now, were contested. McGreevy writes:

This emphasis on religious liberty – the right of an individual to choose and publicly advocate one’s religious beliefs – meshed with a growing nineteenth-century conviction about the importance of the freely acting self. In such disparate venues as marriage (now viewed as a contract between two independent partners), civic life (where restrictions on suffrage diminished over the course of the century), and the marketplace (where economic actors made or lost their own fortunes), the individual was presumed sovereign. One of the most frequently made accusations against Jesuits (in Maine and elsewhere) was that a Jesuit “loses his individuality” through vows of obedience to his order and to the Pope.

The legal fight over the use of the King James Bible in Ellsworth went all the way to the Maine Supreme Court which ruled against the Catholic position. The Rev. George Cheever, a prominent Calvinist minister, could not be bothered with “the ridiculous pretension of conscience” made by Catholics because, to him, the Bible was “neither Protestant nor Romish.” With the rise of abolitionism, Catholics were tarred as sympathetic to slavery, enemies of freedom, and none more than the Jesuits for whom the tale of Fr. Bapst’s ill treatment became a source of encouragement.

Belgian Jesuit, Fr. Ferdinand Helias, opens the next chapter as he was forced to flee his parish in Taos, Missouri, and flee again from a parish in Westphalia, Missouri, all on suspicions of sympathizing with the Confederates. This is an old American trope: Catholicism and slavery versus Protestantism and freedom, a trope that profoundly shaped the founding fathers and lasted through the Civil War and into our own time. Also in the antebellum era, Lajos Kossuth, who had led the unsuccessful Hungarian revolution of 1848, toured the U.S., including Missouri. The “tributes to Kossuth’s support of religious liberty frequently morphed into attacks on Catholicism” notes McGreevy. In St Louis, Kossuth warned his audience that in light of the “terrible history of that order [the Jesuits],” they might prove to be “traitors to your republic.”

Not all the attacks on the society came from outside the Church. Orestes Brownson, the most prominent nineteenth century convert to Catholicism, originally warmed to them and denounced their expulsions from Europe’s so-called liberal regimes. But, as McGreevy explains, the nationalism occasioned by the Civil War, which would extend through the rest of the century and beyond, touched Brownson in ways it did not touch the Jesuits:

Jesuit neutrality during the American Civil War seemed to him inexcusable. “The Society boasts,” Brownson observed, “that it has no country, no nationality, is at home nowhere and everywhere.” But did not the Jesuits possess civic duties, along with “all the rights and immunities of American citizens”? He wondered whether “the education of the Catholic youth of the nation should be intrusted to a society so destitute of loyalty to that it could look on with indifference and see the nation rent asunder.” The Jesuits did not seem “adapted to our age, and especially to our country.”

Reading Brownson’s description, we realize that not for nothing was one of the most anti-Catholic books of the century entitled Le Juif Errant. Religious difference was acceptable within Protestantism, and a matter of indifference to secular nationalists, but both groups got a lot of mileage out of the charge that Jews and Catholics never really belonged. In America, a land whose culture had been shaped by the eighteenth century propaganda of Britishness, the fusion of nationalism and Protestantism had been very thorough, and there was no room for others.

There was, after all, truth to the suspicions about us Catholics. The Church, and especially its flagship Roman order, the Jesuits, was a stumbling block to the nationalism of the age, quite practically in Italy, but in the realm of ideas wherever liberal nationalism and Jesuit and Catholic universalism collided. The schools became an issue in Westphalia, Missouri as they had been in Ellsworth, Maine, although at first the overwhelmingly Catholic town paid the salaries of the School Sisters of Notre Dame who taught at the nominally public school, an arrangement that did not last but which presaged the Faribault-Stillwater plan for joint religious and public education proposed by Archbishop John Ireland at the end of the century, a plan that would lead to the condemnation of Americanism in 1899. The concerns about Christian home schooling voiced by some public school advocates today are nothing new in America, just as the concerns of conservative Christians about the public schools go a long way back.

Tomorrow, I shall conclude this review.

John McGreevy's 'American Jesuits and the World' tells of the Jesuit contribution to global Catholicism

Robert Emmett Curran September 28, 2016

American Jesuits and the Worldby John McGreevy

Princeton University Press. 300p $23.00

If immigration has been a key factor in the development of the United States since its colonial origins, arguably immigration has played an even greater role in the growth of the Society of Jesus in the United States. In a study stunning in the breadth and depth of its international contextualization, John T. McGreevy, through a focus on five emblematic developments in the late 19th century, has deftly captured this remarkable growth of the Jesuit institutional presence in the United States and its intellectual evolution from a countercultural body under siege to one “at home” with American culture and institutions, while recapturing the global vision of its 19th-century founders.

Of the six jurisdictions that constituted the Society of Jesus in the United States in 1900, five of them owed their origin to Jesuit immigrants of the mid-to-late 19th century. Four of the five benefited from Jesuits seeking asylum in America from oppression in Europe. Only one of the provinces (Maryland; after 1879 called the Maryland-New York Province) had missionary beginnings that long antedated the extraordinary Jesuit migration that transformed Jesuit history in the United States. Even in Maryland, by the 1850s, thanks to the Jesuit influx from the European revolutions of the late 1840s, Europeans made up a full third of the province. More important, when the majority of the displaced Jesuits returned to Europe after the old political order was restored, many of the best and the brightest of the asylum seekers were allowed to remain in America. That cadre formed an intellectual critical mass that set the direction and character of the province over the next half century.

This influx coincided with the revival in the United States of an anti-Catholicism that centered on Jesuits as the chief threats to the country’s republican well-being. The Swiss Jesuit John Bapst (1815-87) was tarred and feathered for his criticism of the (Protestant) Bible-based public education in Maine and for his audacity in starting his own school for those seeking an alternative. Five years before his harrowing evening in Ellsworth, Me., Bapst had decried the “infidel country” that gave Catholics the choice of surrendering to its false values or being destroyed. What to non-Catholics was a sacred right of religious liberty was to Catholics just another form of ersatz autonomy, no better than that of the unregulated marketplace as the engine of economic success. To the Belgian Jesuit Ferdinand Helias, ministering in Central Missouri on the eve of the Civil War, American liberalism was inseparable from anti-Catholicism. Distrust of government followed.

That many of the Republicans had roots in the Know-Nothing movement only deepened the animus of most Jesuits against the Lincoln administration. An arms-length relationship with the government, at best, tended to mark Jesuit-state relations for the rest of the century. At Woodstock College near Baltimore, the theologate that became the American intellectual center of ultramontane Catholicism, the émigré faculty barred celebration of the patriotic holidays (Washington’s birthday and the Fourth of July) that had been a staple at Jesuit colleges in the antebellum period and allowed neither faculty nor students to vote.

Five years after Appomattox, American Jesuits became major promoters of papal infallibility as a counterweight to the “acids of modernity” infecting the Western world. The First Vatican Council’s definition of papal infallibility as an article of faith in 1870 helped complete the ultramontane position of the American Jesuits and most of their lay constituents.

Another consequence of the Jesuit émigrés’ coming to America was the growth of a devotional culture that privileged the miraculous and focused on suffering as a crucial sharing in Jesus’ redemptive life. Benedict Sestini, of Woodstock College, was a key promoter, through his publication Messenger of the Sacred Heart, of this new devotionalism that was increasingly put into the service of papal primacy and infallibility.

To appreciate the vital role that immigrant Jesuits played in the creation of the network of colleges that spanned the nation, one needs only to know that they founded 23 of the 25 Jesuit institutions begun in the 19th century. By the late 19th century, this meant uniform, Rome-centered education, symbolized best, perhaps, by the Gesu Church that Burchard Villiger built contiguous to St. Joseph’s College in the 1880s, modeled after its Roman namesake and proclaiming the fundamental Roman allegiance of those who built it and worshiped in it.

“The construction of a vast Catholic subculture of parishes and schools,” John McGreevy notes, “the cultivation of a global Catholic sensibility centered in Rome, the widespread adoption of devotional practices like the Sacred Heart and architectural styles like the baroque, and a renewed fascination with the miraculous did not depend solely on exiled Jesuits. But they are unimaginable without them.”

If McGreevy has brilliantly captured the main lines of this extraordinary, refugee-shaped history, it seems to this reviewer that he has truncated one important stream of this development. There is an implicit assumption that the really significant Jesuit history begins with the waves of Jesuit exiles who found refuge in America, literally from coast to coast; that America was pure and simple mission country for the Jesuits throughout most of the 19th century. Tellingly, he points to the general raising of Jesuit jurisdictions in the country from the rank of mission to the level of provinces in the last decade of that century.

But in 1892 when several missions were formally made provinces, there were already two provinces (Maryland and Missouri) in the country, one of which (Maryland) predated the mass migrations by more than a decade. The Maryland Province, in fact, had in the early part of the century developed a strong national identity that valued the separation of church and state, proudly proclaimed its patriotism (including exuberant celebrations of the nation’s feast days) and had a close relationship with government and a wary attitude about the miraculous. James Ryder, S.J., Irish born and American raised, gave a testament in stone to this republican vision when, in his second term as rector of Georgetown College, he erected Trinity Church, with its neoclassical exterior and stark interior. The year he commissioned it was, ironically, 1848.

From its restoration as a mission of the Society in 1806, Maryland had benefitted immeasurably from a steady stream of immigrants from continental Europe. But there quickly developed conflicts over the issue of the relationship of the Society and the church in America to the nation and Rome. The massive influx of refugees in 1848 proved a decisive turning point in that contest. When the next Jesuit church was built in the District of Columbia, a decade after Trinity, it was Gothic, with multiple altars and sacred paintings and busts richly adorning its interior, all the design of Benedict Sestini and named in honor of a Roman Jesuit saint, St. Aloysius Gonzaga. By 1870, a Maryland provincial, Joseph Keller, a native of Bavaria, could proclaim that the pope’s loss of his temporal power had “made ultramontanes of us all.” In Maryland, the triumph of that ghetto- and Rome-centered mentality had been one that was slow and long in coming against formidable competition.

Fittingly, McGreevy sees the beginning of a change in this worldview in the experience of a band of Jesuits of the Maryland-New York Province sent to work in, and eventually take over, the international Society’s mission to the Philippines. In a new land, they recovered an old tradition.

Society of Jesus

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"Jesuit" redirects here. For the punk band, see Jesuit (band).

This article is about the Society of Jesus, also known as Jesuits. For philosophy concerning the teachings of Jesus, see Jesuism.

Society of Jesus

Abbreviation	SJ, Jesuits
Formation	27 September 1540
Founder	Ignatius of Loyola Francis Xavier Peter Faber
Founded at	Paris, France officialized in Rome
Type	Catholic religious order
Location	4 Borgo Santo Spirito, Rome
Coordinates	41°54′4.9″N 12°27′38.2″E Coordinates: 41°54′4.9″N 12°27′38.2″E
Members	16,378^[1]
Superior General	Arturo Sosa
Website	www.sjweb.info
Remarks	Church of the Gesù is the Mother Church of the Jesuits, next to which Ignatius had his office

Part of a series on the

Society of Jesus

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History

Hierarchy

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Works

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Catholicism portal

The Church of the Gesù, located in Rome, is the mother church of the Jesuits.

The Society of Jesus (SJ – from Latin: Societas Iesu) is a scholarly religious congregation of the Catholic Church which originated in sixteenth-century Spain. The members are called Jesuits.^[2] The society is engaged in evangelization and apostolic ministry in 112 nations on six continents. Jesuits work in education (founding schools, colleges, universities, and seminaries), intellectual research, and cultural pursuits. Jesuits also give retreats, minister in hospitals and parishes, sponsor direct social ministries, and promote ecumenical dialogue.

Ignatius of Loyola, a Basque nobleman from the Pyrenees area of northern Spain, founded the society after discerning his spiritual vocation while recovering from a wound sustained in the Battle of Pamplona. He composed the Spiritual Exercises to help others follow the teachings of Jesus Christ. In 1534, Ignatius and six other young men, including Francis Xavier and Peter Faber, gathered and professed vows of poverty, chastity, and later obedience, including a special vow of obedience to the Pope in matters of mission direction and assignment. Ignatius's plan of the order's organization was approved by Pope Paul III in 1540 by a bull containing the "Formula of the Institute".

Ignatius was a nobleman who had a military background, and the members of the society were supposed to accept orders anywhere in the world, where they might be required to live in extreme conditions. Accordingly, the opening lines of the founding document declared that the society was founded for "whoever desires to serve as a soldier of God^[a] to strive especially for the defence and propagation of the faith and for the progress of souls in Christian life and doctrine."^[4] Jesuits are thus sometimes referred to colloquially as "God's soldiers",^[5] "God's marines",^[6] or "the Company", which evolved from references to Ignatius' history as a soldier and the society's commitment to accepting orders anywhere and to endure any conditions.^[7] The society participated in the Counter-Reformation and, later, in the implementation of the Second Vatican Council.

The Society of Jesus is consecrated under the patronage of Madonna Della Strada, a title of the Blessed Virgin Mary, and it is led by a Superior General.^[8][9] The headquarters of the society, its General Curia, is in Rome.^[10] The historic curia of Ignatius is now part of the Collegio del Gesù attached to the Church of the Gesù, the Jesuit mother church.

In 2013, Jorge Mario Bergoglio became the first Jesuit to be elected Pope, taking the name Pope Francis.

Contents

Statistics

Jesuits in the world — January 2013^[11]
Region	Jesuits	Percentage
Africa	1,509	9%
South Latin America	1,221	7%
North Latin America	1,226	7%
South Asia	4,016	23%
Asia-Pacific	1,639	9%
Central and East Europe	1,641	10%
South Europe	2,027	12%
West Europe	1,541	9%
North America	2,467	14%

The Jesuits today form the largest single religious order of priests and brothers in the Catholic Church^[12] (although they are surpassed by the Franciscan family of orders of Friars Minor, Capuchins, and Conventuals). The Jesuits have experienced a decline in numbers in recent decades. As of 2016 the society had 16,378 members, 11,785 priests and 4,593 brothers and scholastics. This represents a 41.5% decline since 1977, when the society had a total membership of 28,038, of which 20,205 were priests.^[1] This decline is most pronounced in Europe and the Americas, with relatively modest membership gains occurring in Asia and Africa.^[13][14] There seems to be no "Pope Francis effect" in counteracting the free fall of vocations among the Jesuits.^[15]

The society is divided into 83 provinces along with six independent regions and ten dependent regions.^[11] On 1 January 2007, members served in 112 nations on six continents with the largest number in India and the US. Their average age was 57.3 years: 63.4 years for priests, 29.9 years for scholastics, and 65.5 years for brothers.^[16]

The current Superior General of the Jesuits is Arturo Sosa. The society is characterized by its ministries in the fields of missionary work, human rights, social justice and, most notably, higher education. It operates colleges and universities in various countries around the world and is particularly active in the Philippines and India. In the United States the Jesuits have historical ties to 28 colleges and universities and 61 high schools. The degree to which the Jesuits are involved in the administration of each institution varies. As of 2016, 12 of the 28 Jesuit universities in the US had non-Jesuit lay presidents.^[17] According to a 2014 article in The Atlantic, "the number of Jesuit priests who are active in everyday operations at the schools isn’t nearly as high as it once was".^[18] Worldwide it runs 322 secondary schools and 172 colleges and universities. A typical conception of the mission of a Jesuit school will often contain such concepts as proposing Christ as the model of human life, the pursuit of excellence in teaching and learning, lifelong spiritual and intellectual growth,^[19] and training men and women for others.^[20]

Formula of the Institute

Ignatius of Loyola

Ignatius receiving papal bull

Ignatius laid out his original vision for the new order in the "Formula of the Institute of the Society of Jesus",^[21] which is "the fundamental charter of the order, of which all subsequent official documents were elaborations and to which they had to conform."^[22] He ensured that his formula was contained in two papal bulls signed by Pope Paul III in 1540 and by Pope Julius III in 1550.^[21] The formula expressed the nature, spirituality, community life, and apostolate of the new religious order. Its famous opening statement echoed Ignatius' military background:

Whoever desires to serve as a soldier of God beneath the banner of the Cross in our Society, which we desire to be designated by the Name of Jesus, and to serve the Lord alone and the Church, his spouse, under the Roman Pontiff, the Vicar of Christ on earth, should, after a solemn vow of perpetual chastity, poverty and obedience, keep what follows in mind. He is a member of a Society founded chiefly for this purpose: to strive especially for the defence and propagation of the faith and for the progress of souls in Christian life and doctrine, by means of public preaching, lectures and any other ministration whatsoever of the Word of God, and further by means of retreats, the education of children and unlettered persons in Christianity, and the spiritual consolation of Christ's faithful through hearing confessions and administering the other sacraments. Moreover, he should show himself ready to reconcile the estranged, compassionately assist and serve those who are in prisons or hospitals, and indeed, to perform any other works of charity, according to what will seem expedient for the glory of God and the common good.^[16]

A fresco depicting Ignatius of Loyola receiving the papal bull Regimini militantis Ecclesiae from Pope Paul III was created after 1743 by Johann Christoph Handke in the Church of Our Lady Of the Snow in Olomouc.

History

Foundation

Church of Saint-Pierre de Montmartre, Paris

Francis Xavier

On 15 August 1534, Ignatius of Loyola (born Íñigo López de Loyola), a Spaniard from the Basque city of Loyola, and six others mostly of Castilian origin, all students at the University of Paris,^[23] met in Montmartre outside Paris, in a crypt beneath the church of Saint Denis, now Saint Pierre de Montmartre, to pronounce the religious vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience.^[24] Ignatius' six companions were: Francisco Xavier from Navarre (modern Spain), Alfonso Salmeron, Diego Laínez, Nicolás Bobadilla from Castile (modern Spain), Peter Faber from Savoy, and Simão Rodrigues from Portugal.^[25] The meeting has been commemorated in the Martyrium of Saint Denis, Montmartre. They called themselves the Compañía de Jesús, and also Amigos en El Señor or "Friends in the Lord", because they felt "they were placed together by Christ." The name "company" had echoes of the military (reflecting perhaps Ignatius' background as Captain in the Spanish army) as well as of discipleship (the "companions" of Jesus). The Spanish "company" would be translated into Latin as societas like in socius, a partner or comrade. From this came "Society of Jesus" (SJ) by which they would be known more widely.^[26]

Religious orders established in the medieval era were named after particular men: Francis of Assisi (Franciscans), Domingo de Guzmán, later canonized as St Dominic (Dominicans); and Augustine of Hippo (Augustinians). Ignatius of Loyola and his followers appropriated the name of Jesus for their new order, provoking resentment by other religious who considered it presumptuous. The resentment was recorded by Jesuit José de Acosta of a conversation with the Archbishop of Santo Domingo.^[27] In the words of one historian: "The use of the name Jesus gave great offense. Both on the Continent and in England, it was denounced as blasphemous; petitions were sent to kings and to civil and ecclesiastical tribunals to have it changed; and even Pope Sixtus V had signed a Brief to do away with it." But nothing came of all the opposition; there were already congregations named after the Trinity and as "God's daughters".^[28]

In 1537, the seven travelled to Italy to seek papal approval for their order. Pope Paul III gave them a commendation, and permitted them to be ordained priests. These initial steps led to the official founding in 1540.

They were ordained in Venice by the bishop of Arbe (24 June). They devoted themselves to preaching and charitable work in Italy. The Italian War of 1535-1538 renewed between Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, Venice, the Pope, and the Ottoman Empire, had rendered any journey to Jerusalem impossible.

Again in 1540, they presented the project to Paul III. After months of dispute, a congregation of cardinals reported favourably upon the Constitution presented, and Paul III confirmed the order through the bull Regimini militantis ecclesiae ("To the Government of the Church Militant"), on 27 September 1540. This is the founding document of the Society of Jesus as an official Catholic religious order. Ignatius was chosen as the first Superior General. Paul III's bull had limited the number of its members to sixty. This limitation was removed through the bull Exposcit debitum of Julius III in 1550.^[29]

Jesuits at Akbar's court in India, c. 1605

In fulfilling the mission of the "Formula of the Institute of the Society", the first Jesuits concentrated on a few key activities. First, they founded schools throughout Europe. Jesuit teachers were trained in both classical studies and theology, and their schools reflected this. Second, they sent out missionaries across the globe to evangelize those peoples who had not yet heard the Gospel, founding missions in widely diverse regions such as modern-day Paraguay, Japan, Ontario, and Ethiopia. One of the original seven arrived in India already in 1541.^[30] Finally, though not initially formed for the purpose, they aimed to stop Protestantism from spreading and to preserve communion with Rome and the successor of Saint Peter. The zeal of the Jesuits overcame the movement toward Protestantism in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and southern Germany.

Ignatius wrote the Jesuit Constitutions, adopted in 1553, which created a centralised organization and stressed acceptance of any mission to which the Pope might call them.^[31][32][33] His main principle became the unofficial Jesuit motto: Ad Maiorem Dei Gloriam ("For the greater glory of God"). This phrase is designed to reflect the idea that any work that is not evil can be meritorious for the spiritual life if it is performed with this intention, even things normally considered of little importance.^[29]

The Society of Jesus is classified among institutes as a mendicant order of clerks regular, that is, a body of priests organized for apostolic work, following a religious rule, and relying on alms, or donations, for support.

The term "Jesuit" (of 15th-century origin, meaning one who used too frequently or appropriated the name of Jesus) was first applied to the society in reproach (1544–52).^[34] The term was never used by Ignatius of Loyola, but over time, members and friends of the society adopted the name with a positive meaning.^[28]

Early works

Ratio Studiorum, 1598

The Jesuits were founded just before the Council of Trent (1545–1563) and ensuing Counter-Reformation that would introduce reforms within the Catholic Church, and so counter the Protestant Reformation throughout Catholic Europe.

Ignatius and the early Jesuits did recognize, though, that the hierarchical church was in dire need of reform. Some of their greatest struggles were against corruption, venality, and spiritual lassitude within the Catholic Church. Ignatius insisted on a high level of academic preparation for the clergy in contrast to the relatively poor education of much of the clergy of his time. And the Jesuit vow against "ambitioning prelacies" can be seen as an effort to counteract another problem evidenced in the preceding century.

Ignatius and the Jesuits who followed him believed that the reform of the church had to begin with the conversion of an individual's heart. One of the main tools the Jesuits have used to bring about this conversion is the Ignatian retreat, called the Spiritual Exercises. During a four-week period of silence, individuals undergo a series of directed meditations on the purpose of life and contemplations on the life of Christ. They meet regularly with a spiritual director who guides their choice of exercises and helps them to develop a more discerning love for Christ.

The retreat follows a "Purgative-Illuminative-Unitive" pattern in the tradition of the spirituality of John Cassian and the Desert Fathers. Ignatius' innovation was to make this style of contemplative mysticism available to all people in active life. Further, he used it as a means of rebuilding the spiritual life of the church. The Exercises became both the basis for the training of Jesuits and one of the essential ministries of the order: giving the exercises to others in what became known as "retreats".

The Jesuits' contributions to the late Renaissance were significant in their roles both as a missionary order and as the first religious order to operate colleges and universities as a principal and distinct ministry. By the time of Ignatius' death in 1556, the Jesuits were already operating a network of 74 colleges on three continents. A precursor to liberal education, the Jesuit plan of studies incorporated the Classical teachings of Renaissance humanism into the Scholastic structure of Catholic thought.

In addition to the teachings of faith, the Jesuit Ratio Studiorum (1599) would standardize the study of Latin, Greek, classical literature, poetry, and philosophy as well as non-European languages, sciences, and the arts. Furthermore, Jesuit schools encouraged the study of vernacular literature and rhetoric, and thereby became important centres for the training of lawyers and public officials.

The Jesuit schools played an important part in winning back to Catholicism a number of European countries which had for a time been predominantly Protestant, notably Poland and Lithuania. Today, Jesuit colleges and universities are located in over one hundred nations around the world. Under the notion that God can be encountered through created things and especially art, they encouraged the use of ceremony and decoration in Catholic ritual and devotion. Perhaps as a result of this appreciation for art, coupled with their spiritual practice of "finding God in all things", many early Jesuits distinguished themselves in the visual and performing arts as well as in music. The theater was a form of expression especially prominent in Jesuit schools.^[35]

Jesuit priests often acted as confessors to kings during the Early Modern Period. They were an important force in the Counter-Reformation and in the Catholic missions, in part because their relatively loose structure (without the requirements of living and celebration of the Liturgy of Hours in common) allowed them to be flexible and meet diverse needs arising at the time.^[36]

Expansion

See also: Jesuit Reductions

Jesuit missionary, painting from 1779

Bell made in Portugal for Nanbanji Church run by Jesuits in Japan, 1576-1587

After much training and experience in theology, Jesuits went across the globe in search of converts to Christianity. Despite their dedication, they had little success in Asia except for in the northern Philippines. For instance, early missions in Japan resulted in the government granting the Jesuits the feudal fiefdom of Nagasaki in 1580. However, this was removed in 1587 due to fears over their growing influence.^[37] Jesuits did, however, have much success in Latin America. Their ascendancy in societies in the Americas accelerated during the seventeenth century, wherein Jesuits created new missions in Peru, Columbia, and Bolivia; as early as 1603, there were 345 Jesuit priests in Mexico alone.^[38]

Francis Xavier, one of the original companions of Loyola, arrived in Goa, in Portuguese India, in 1541 to consider evangelical service in the Indies. In a 1545 letter to John III of Portugal, he requested an Inquisition to be installed in Goa (see Goa Inquisition). He died in China after a decade of evangelism in Southern India. The Portuguese Jesuit, António de Andrade founded a mission in Western Tibet in 1624. Two Jesuit missionaries, Johann Grueber and Albert Dorville, reached Lhasa in Tibet in 1661. The Italian Jesuit Ippolito Desideri established a new Jesuit mission in Lhasa and Central Tibet (1716–21) and gained an exceptional mastery of Tibetan language and culture, writing a long and very detailed account of the country and its religion as well as treatises in Tibetan that attempted to refute key Buddhist ideas and establish the truth of Roman Catholic Christianity.

Jesuit missions in America became controversial in Europe, especially in Spain and Portugal where they were seen as interfering with the proper colonial enterprises of the royal governments. The Jesuits were often the only force standing between the Native Americans and slavery. Together throughout South America but especially in present-day Brazil and Paraguay, they formed Christian Native American city-states, called "reductions". These were societies set up according to an idealized theocratic model. The efforts of Jesuits like Antonio Ruiz de Montoya to protect the natives from enslavement by Spanish and Portuguese colonizers would contribute to the call for the society's suppression. Jesuit priests such as Manuel da Nóbrega and José de Anchieta founded several towns in Brazil in the 16th century, including São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, and were very influential in the pacification, religious conversion, and education of Indian nations. They also built schools, organized people into villages, and created a writing system for the local languages of Brazil.^[38]

Jesuit scholars working in foreign missions were very important in studying their languages and strove to produce Latinized grammars and dictionaries. This included: Japanese (see Nippo jisho also known as Vocabvlario da Lingoa de Iapam, Vocabulary of the Japanese Language, a Japanese–Portuguese dictionary written 1603); Vietnamese (Portuguese missionaries created the Vietnamese alphabet,^[39][40] which was later formalized by Avignon missionary Alexandre de Rhodes with his 1651 trilingual dictionary); Tupi (the main language of Brazil); and the pioneering study of Sanskrit in the West by Jean François Pons in the 1740s.

Under Portuguese royal patronage, Jesuits thrived in Goa and until 1759 successfully expanded their activities to education and healthcare. In 1594 they founded the first Roman-style academic institution in the East, St. Paul Jesuit College in Macau, China. Founded by Alessandro Valignano, it had a great influence on the learning of Eastern languages (Chinese and Japanese) and culture by missionary Jesuits, becoming home to the first western sinologists such as Matteo Ricci. Jesuit efforts in Goa were interrupted by the expulsion of the Jesuits from Portuguese territories in 1759 by the powerful Marquis of Pombal, Secretary of State in Portugal.^[41]

Jesuit missionaries were active among indigenous peoples in New France in North America, many of them compiling dictionaries or glossaries of the First Nations and Native American languages they had learned. For instance, before his death in 1708, Jacques Gravier, vicar general of the Illinois Mission in the Mississippi River valley, compiled a Kaskaskia Illinois–French dictionary, considered the most extensive among works of the missionaries.^[42] Extensive documentation was left in the form of The Jesuit Relations, published annually from 1632 until 1673.

China

Main article: Jesuit China missions

Matteo Ricci (left) and Xu Guangqi in the 1607 Chinese publication of Euclid's Elements

Confucius, Philosopher of the Chinese, or, Chinese Knowledge Explained in Latin, published by Philippe Couplet, Prospero Intorcetta, Christian Herdtrich, and François de Rougemont at Paris in 1687

A map of the 200-odd Jesuit churches and missions established across China c. 1687.

The Jesuits first entered China through the Portuguese settlement on Macau, where they settled on Green Island and founded St. Paul's College.

The Jesuit China missions of the 16th and 17th centuries introduced Western science and astronomy, then undergoing its own revolution, to China. The scientific revolution brought by the Jesuits coincided with a time when scientific innovation had declined in China:

[The Jesuits] made efforts to translate western mathematical and astronomical works into Chinese and aroused the interest of Chinese scholars in these sciences. They made very extensive astronomical observation and carried out the first modern cartographic work in China. They also learned to appreciate the scientific achievements of this ancient culture and made them known in Europe. Through their correspondence European scientists first learned about the Chinese science and culture.^[43]

For over a century, Jesuits like Michele Ruggieri, Matteo Ricci,^[44] Philippe Couplet, Michal Boym, and François Noël refined translations and disseminated Chinese knowledge, culture, history, and philosophy to Europe. Their Latin works popularized the name "Confucius" and had considerable influence on the Deists and other Enlightenment thinkers, some of whom were intrigued by the Jesuits' attempts to reconcile Confucian morality with Catholicism.^[45]

Upon the arrival of the Franciscans and other monastic orders, Jesuit accommodation of Chinese culture and rituals led to the long-running Chinese Rites controversy. Despite the personal testimony of the Kangxi Emperor and many Jesuit converts that Chinese veneration of ancestors and Confucius was a nonreligious token of respect, Pope Clement XI's papal decree Cum Deus Optimus... ruled that such behavior constituted impermissible forms of idolatry and superstition in 1704;^[46] his legate Tournon and the Bishop of Fujian, tasked with presenting this finding to the Kangxi Emperor, displayed such extreme ignorance that the emperor mandated the expulsion of Christian missionaries unable to abide by the terms of Ricci's Chinese catechism.^{[47][48][49][50]} Tournon's summary and automatic excommunication for any violators of Clement's decree^[51]—upheld by the 1715 bull Ex Illa Die...—led to the swift collapse of all the missions in China;^[48] the last Jesuits were finally expelled after 1721.^[52]

Canada

Bressani map of 1657 depicts the martyrdom of Saint Jean de Brébeuf

During the French colonisation of New France in the 17th century, Jesuits played an active role in North America. When Samuel de Champlain established the foundations of the French colony at Québec, he was aware of native tribes who possessed their own languages, customs, and traditions. These natives that inhabited modern day Ontario, Québec, and the areas around Lake Simcoe and Georgian Bay were the Montagnais, the Algonquins, and the Huron.^[53] Champlain believed that these had souls to be saved, so in 1614 he initially obtained the Recollects, a reform branch of the Franciscans in France, to convert the native inhabitants.^[54] In 1624 the French Recollects realized the magnitude of their task^[55] and sent a delegate to France to invite the Society of Jesus to help with this mission. The invitation was accepted, and Jesuits Jean de Brébeuf, Ennemond Masse, and Charles Lalemant arrived in Quebec in 1625.^[56] Lalemant is considered to have been the first author of one of the Jesuit Relations of New France, which chronicled their evangelization during the seventeenth century.

The Jesuits became involved in the Huron mission in 1626 and lived among the Huron peoples. Brébeuf learned the native language and created the first Huron language dictionary. Outside conflict forced the Jesuits to leave New France in 1629 when Quebec was captured by the Kirke brothers under the English flag. But in 1632 Quebec was returned to the French under the Treaty of Saint Germain-en-Laye and the Jesuits returned to Huron territory, modern Huronia.^[57]

In 1639, Jesuit Jerome Lalemant decided that the missionaries among the Hurons needed a local residence and established Sainte-Marie, which expanded into a living replica of European society.^[58] It became the Jesuit headquarters and an important part of Canadian history. Throughout most of the 1640s the Jesuits had great success, establishing five chapels in Huronia and baptising over one thousand Huron natives.^[59] However, as the Jesuits began to expand westward they encountered more Iroquois natives, rivals of the Hurons. The Iroquois grew jealous of the Hurons' wealth and fur trade system, began to attack Huron villages in 1648. They killed missionaries and burned villages, and the Hurons scattered. Both Jean de Brébeuf and Gabriel Lalemant were tortured and killed in the Iroquois raids; they have been canonized as martyrs in the Catholic Church.^[60] With the knowledge of the invading Iroquois, the Jesuit Paul Ragueneau burned down Sainte-Marie instead of allowing the Iroquois the satisfaction of destroying it. By late June 1649, the French and some Christian Hurons built Sainte-Marie II on Christian Island (Isle de Saint-Joseph). However, facing starvation, lack of supplies, and constant threats of Iroquois attack, the small Sainte-Marie II was abandoned in June 1650; the remaining Hurons and Jesuits departed for Quebec and Ottawa.^[60] After a series of epidemics, beginning in 1634, some Huron began to mistrust the Jesuits and accused them of being sorcerers casting spells from their books.^[61] As a result of the Iroquois raids and outbreak of disease, many missionaries, traders, and soldiers died.^[62] Today, the Huron tribe, also known as the Wyandot, have a First Nations reserve in Quebec, Canada, and three major settlements in the United States.^[63]

After the collapse of the Huron nation, the Jesuits were to undertake the task of converting the Iroquois, something they had attempted in 1642 with little success. In 1653 the Iroquois nation had a fallout with the Dutch. They then signed a peace treaty with the French and a mission was established. The Iroquois took the treaty lightly and soon turned on the French again. In 1658, the Jesuits were having very little success and were under constant threat of being tortured or killed,^[62] but continued their effort until 1687 when they abandoned their permanent posts in the Iroquois homeland.^[64]

By 1700, Jesuits turned to maintaining Quebec, Montreal, and Ottawa without establishing new posts.^[65] During the Seven Years' War, Quebec fell to the English in 1759 and New France was under British control. The English barred the immigration of more Jesuits to New France. By 1763, there were only twenty-one Jesuits stationed in New France. By 1773 only eleven Jesuits remained. During the same year the English crown laid claim to New France and declared that the Society of Jesus in New France was dissolved.^[66]

The dissolution of the Order left in place substantial estates and investments, amounting to an income of approximately £5,000 a year, and the Council for the Affairs of the Province of Quebec, later succeeded by the Legislative Assembly of Quebec, assumed the task of allocating the funds to suitable recipients, chiefly schools.^[67]

The Jesuit mission in Quebec was re-established in 1842. There were a number of Jesuit colleges founded in the decades following; one of these colleges evolved into present-day Laval University.^[68]

United States

Main article: Jesuits in the United States

Mexico

Misión de Nuestra Señora de Loreto Conchoó in the 18th century, the first permanent Jesuit mission in Baja California, established by Juan María de Salvatierra in 1697

Main altar of the Jesuit colegio in Tepozotlan, now the Museo Nacional del Virreinato

Mexican-born Jesuit Francisco Clavijero (1731-1787) wrote an important history of Mexico.

The Jesuits in New Spain distinguished themselves in several ways. They had high standards for acceptance to the order and many years of training. They attracted the patronage of elite families whose sons they educated in rigorous newly founded Jesuit colegios ("colleges"), including Colegio de San Pedro y San Pablo, Colegio de San Ildefonso, and the Colegio de San Francisco Javier, Tepozotlan. Those same elite families hoped that a son with a vocation to the priesthood would be accepted as a Jesuit. Jesuits were also zealous in evangelization of the indigenous, particularly on the northern frontiers.

To support their colegios and members of the Society of Jesus, the Jesuits acquired landed estates that were run with the best-practices for generating income in that era. A number of these haciendas were donated by wealthy elites. The donation of a hacienda to the Jesuits was the spark igniting a conflict between seventeenth-century bishop of Puebla Don Juan de Palafox and the Jesuit colegio in that city. Since the Jesuits resisted paying the tithe on their estates, this donation effectively took revenue out of the church hierarchy's pockets by removing it from the tithe rolls.^[69]

Many of Jesuit haciendas were huge, with Palafox asserting that just two colleges owned 300,000 head of sheep, whose wool was transformed locally in Puebla to cloth; six sugar plantations worth a million pesos and generating an income of 100,000 pesos.^[69] The immense Jesuit hacienda of Santa Lucía produced pulque, the fermented juice of the agave cactus whose main consumers were the lower classes and Indians in Spanish cities. Although most haciendas had a free work force of permanent or seasonal labourers, the Jesuit haciendas in Mexico had a significant number of black slaves.^[70]

The Jesuits operated their properties as an integrated unit with the larger Jesuit order; thus revenues from haciendas funded their colegios. Jesuits did significantly expand missions to the indigenous in the northern frontier area and a number were martyred, but the crown supported those missions.^[69] Mendicant orders that had real estate were less economically integrated, so that some individual houses were wealthy while others struggled economically. The Franciscans, who were founded as an order embracing poverty, did not accumulate real estate, unlike the Augustinians and Dominicans in Mexico.

The Jesuits engaged in conflict with the episcopal hierarchy over the question of payment of tithes, the ten percent tax on agriculture levied on landed estates for support of the church hierarchy from bishops and cathedral chapters to parish priests. Since the Jesuits were the largest religious order holding real estate, surpassing the Dominicans and Augustinians who had accumulated significant property, this was no small matter.^[69] They argued that they were exempt, due to special pontifical privileges.^[71] In the mid-seventeenth century, bishop of Puebla, Don Juan de Palafox took on the Jesuits over this matter and was so soundly defeated that he was recalled to Spain, where he became the bishop of the minor diocese of Osma.

As elsewhere in the Spanish empire, the Jesuits were expelled from Mexico in 1767. Their haciendas were sold off and their colegios and missions in Baja California were taken over by other orders.^[72] Exiled Mexican-born Jesuit Francisco Javier Clavijero wrote an important history of Mexico while in Italy, a basis for creole patriotism. Andrés Cavo also wrote an important text on Mexican history that Carlos María de Bustamante published in the early nineteenth-century.^[73] An earlier Jesuit who wrote about the history of Mexico was Diego Luis de Motezuma (1619–99), a descendant of the Aztec monarchs of Tenochtitlan. Motezuma's Corona mexicana, o Historia de los nueve Motezumas was completed in 1696. He "aimed to show that Mexican emperors were a legitimate dynasty in the 17th-century in the European sense."^[74][75]

The Jesuits were allowed to return to Mexico in 1840 when General Antonio López de Santa Anna was once more president of Mexico. Their re-introduction to Mexico was "to assist in the education of the poorer classes and much of their property was restored to them."^[76]

Northern Spanish America

Acosta's Historia natural y moral de las Indias (1590) text on the Americas

Peter Claver ministering to African slaves at Cartagena

Jesuit church, Cuzco, Peru

The Jesuits arrived in the Viceroyalty of Peru by 1571; it was a key area of Spanish empire, with not only dense indigenous populations but also huge deposits of silver at Potosí. A major figure in the first wave of Jesuits was José de Acosta (1540–1600), whose book Historia natural y moral de las Indias (1590) introduced Europeans to Spain's American empire via fluid prose and keen observation and explanation, based on fifteen years in Peru and a bit of time in New Spain (Mexico). Viceroy of Peru Don Francisco de Toledo urged the Jesuits to evangelize the indigenous peoples of Peru, wanting to put them in charge of parishes, but Acosta adhered to the Jesuit position that they were not subject to the jurisdiction of bishops and to catechize in Indian parishes would bring them into conflict with the bishops. For that reason, the Jesuits in Peru focused on education of elite men rather than the indigenous populations.^[77]

To minister to newly arrived African slaves, Alonso de Sandoval (fr) (1576–1651) worked at the port of Cartagena de Indias. Sandoval wrote about this ministry in De instauranda Aethiopum salute (1627),^[78] describing how he and his assistant Pedro Claver, later canonized, met slave transport ships in the harbour, went below decks where 300-600 slaves were chained, and gave physical aid with water, while introducing the Africans to Christianity. In his treatise, he did not condemn slavery or the ill-treatment of slaves, but sought to instruct fellow Jesuits to this ministry and describe how he catechized the slaves.^[79]

Rafael Ferrer was the first Jesuit of Quito to explore and found missions in the upper Amazon regions of South America from 1602 to 1610, which belonged to the Audiencia (high court) of Quito that was a part of the Viceroyalty of Peru until it was transferred to the newly created Viceroyalty of New Granada in 1717. In 1602, Ferrer began to explore the Aguarico, Napo, and Marañon rivers (Sucumbios region, in what is today Ecuador and Peru), and between 1604 and 1605 set up missions among the Cofane natives. He was martyred by an apostate native in 1610.

In 1639, the Audiencia of Quito organized an expedition to renew its exploration of the Amazon river and the Quito Jesuit (Jesuita Quiteño) Cristóbal de Acuña was a part of this expedition. The expedition disembarked from the Napo river 16 February 1639 and arrived in what is today Pará Brazil on the banks of the Amazon river on 12 December 1639. In 1641, Acuña published in Madrid a memoir of his expedition to the Amazon river entitled Nuevo Descubrimiento del gran rio de las Amazonas, which for academics became a fundamental reference on the Amazon region.

Samuel Fritz's 1707 map showing the Amazon and the Orinoco

In 1637, the Jesuits Gaspar Cugia and Lucas de la Cueva from Quito began establishing missions in Maynas territories, on the banks of the Marañón River, around the Pongo de Manseriche region, close to the Spanish settlement of Borja. Between 1637 and 1652 there were 14 missions established along the Marañón River and its southern tributaries, the Huallaga and the Ucayali rivers. Jesuit Lucas de la Cueva and Raimundo de Santacruz opened up two new routes of communication with Quito, through the Pastaza and Napo rivers.

Between 1637 and 1715, Samuel Fritz founded 38 missions along the length of the Amazon river, between the Napo and Negro rivers, that were called the Omagua Missions. These missions were continually attacked by the Brazilian Bandeirantes beginning in the year 1705. In 1768, the only Omagua mission that was left was San Joaquin de Omaguas, since it had been moved to a new location on the Napo river away from the Bandeirantes.

In the immense territory of Maynas, the Jesuits of Quito made contact with a number of indigenous tribes which spoke 40 different languages, and founded a total of 173 Jesuit missions encompassing 150,000 inhabitants. Because of the constant epidemics (smallpox and measles) and warfare with other tribes and the Bandeirantes, the total number of Jesuit Missions were reduced to 40 by 1744. At the time when the Jesuits were expelled from Spanish America in 1767, the Jesuits of Quito registered 36 missions run by 25 Jesuits of Quito in the Audiencia of Quito – 6 in the Napo and Aguarico Missions and 19 in the Pastaza and Iquitos Missions, with the population at 20,000 inhabitants.

Paraguay

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Ruins of La Santisima Trinidad de Parana mission in Paraguay, founded by Jesuits in 1706

The first Jesuits arrived in 1588, and in 1610 Philip III proclaimed that only the "sword of the word" should be used to subdue Paraguayan Indians, mostly Guarani. The church granted Jesuits extensive powers to phase out the encomienda system of forced labor, angering settlers dependent on a continuing supply of Indian labor and concubines. The first Jesuit mission in the Paraguay area (which encompassed the border regions of Paraguay, Argentina, and Brazil) was founded in 1609. By 1732, the Jesuits had gathered into 30 missions or reductions a total of 141,382 Guarani. Due to disease, European politics, and internal discord, the population in the missions declined afterwards.^[80] At their apogee, the Jesuits dreamed of a Jesuit empire that would stretch from the Paraguay-Paraná confluence to the coast and back to the Paraná headwaters.^[81]

In the early years the new Jesuit reductions were threatened by the slave-raiding bandeirantes. The bandeirantes captured Indians and sold them as slaves to planters in Brazil. Having depleted the Indian population near Sâo Paulo, they discovered the richly populated reductions. The Spanish authorities chose not to defend the settlements, and the Jesuits and their thousands of neophytes thus had little means to protect themselves. Thousands of Guarani were captured by the bandeirantes before, organized and armed by the Jesuits, a Guarani army defeated the slave raiders at the battle of Mbororé. Subsequently, the viceroy of Peru conceded the right of bearing arms to the Guarani. Thereafter, well-trained and highly motivated Indian units were able to defend themselves from slavers and other threats.^[82] The victory at Mbororé set the stage for the golden age of the Jesuits in Paraguay. Life in the reductions offered the Guaraní higher living standards, protection from settlers, and physical security. These reductions, which became quite wealthy, exported goods, and supplied Indian armies to the Spanish on many occasion.^[81]

The reductions, where the Jesuits created orchestras, musical ensembles, and actors' troupes, and in which virtually all the profits derived from Indian labor were distributed to the labourers, earned praise from some of the leaders of the French enlightenment, who were not predisposed to favour Jesuits. "By means of religion," d'Alembert wrote, "the Jesuits established a monarchical authority in Paraguay, founded solely on their powers of persuasion and on their lenient methods of government. Masters of the country, they rendered happy the people under their sway; they succeeded in subduing them without ever having recourse to force." And Jesuit-educated Voltaire called the Jesuit government "a triumph of humanity."^[83]

Because of their success, the Paraguayan Jesuits gained many enemies, and the Reductions fell prey to changing times. During the 1720s and 1730s, Paraguayan settlers rebelled against Jesuit privileges in the Revolt of the Comuneros and against the government that protected them. Although this revolt failed, it was one of the earliest and most serious risings against Spanish authority in the New World and caused the crown to question its continued support for the Jesuits. The Jesuit-inspired War of the Seven Reductions (1750–61) increased sentiment in Madrid for suppressing this "empire within an empire."

The Spanish king Charles III (1759–88) expelled the Jesuits in 1767 from Spain and its territories. Within a few decades of the expulsion, most of what the Jesuits had accomplished was lost. The missions were mismanaged and abandoned by the Guaraní. Today, these ruins of a 160-year experiment have become a tourist attraction.^[81][84]

Colonial Brazil

Manuel da Nóbrega on a commemorative Portuguese stamp of the 400th anniversary of the foundation of São Paulo, Brazil

Jesuit in 18th century, Brazil

Tomé de Sousa, first Governor General of Brazil, brought the first group of Jesuits to the colony. The Jesuits were officially supported by the King, who instructed Tomé de Sousa to give them all the support needed to Christianize the indigenous peoples.

The first Jesuits, guided by Manuel da Nóbrega, Juan de Azpilcueta Navarro, Leonardo Nunes, and later José de Anchieta, established the first Jesuit missions in Salvador and in São Paulo dos Campos de Piratininga, the settlement that gave rise to the city of São Paulo. Nóbrega and Anchieta were instrumental in the defeat of the French colonists of France Antarctique by managing to pacify the Tamoio natives, who had previously fought the Portuguese. The Jesuits took part in the foundation of the city of Rio de Janeiro in 1565.

The success of the Jesuits in converting the indigenous peoples is linked to their efforts to understand the native cultures, especially their languages. The first grammar of the Tupi language was compiled by José de Anchieta and printed in Coimbra in 1595. The Jesuits often gathered the aborigines in communities (the Jesuit Reductions) where the natives worked for the community and were evangelised.

The Jesuits had frequent disputes with other colonists who wanted to enslave the natives. The action of the Jesuits saved many natives from being enslaved by Europeans, but also disturbed their ancestral way of life and inadvertently helped spread infectious diseases against which the aborigines had no natural defenses. Slave labor and trade were essential for the economy of Brazil and other American colonies, and the Jesuits usually did not object to the enslavement of African peoples, but rather critiqued the conditions of slavery.^[85]

Suppression and restoration

Main article: Suppression of the Jesuits

The Suppression of the Jesuits in Portugal, France, the Two Sicilies, Parma, and the Spanish Empire by 1767 was troubling to the society's defender, Pope Clement XIII. On 21 July 1773 Pope Clement XIV issued the papal brief Dominus ac Redemptor,^[86] decreeing:

Having further considered that the said Company of Jesus can no longer produce those abundant fruits, ... in the present case, we are determining upon the fate of a society classed among the mendicant orders, both by its institute and by its privileges; after a mature deliberation, we do, out of our certain knowledge, and the fulness of our apostolical power, suppress and abolish the said company: we deprive it of all activity whatever. ...And to this end a member of the regular clergy, recommendable for his prudence and sound morals, shall be chosen to preside over and govern the said houses; so that the name of the Company shall be, and is, for ever extinguished and suppressed.

The suppression was carried out in all countries except Prussia and Russia, where Catherine the Great had forbidden its promulgation. Because millions of Catholics (including many Jesuits) lived in the Polish provinces recently annexed by the Kingdom of Prussia, the society was able to maintain its existence and carry on its work all through the period of suppression. Subsequently, Pope Pius VI would grant formal permission for the continuation of the society in Russia and Poland, with Stanislaus Czerniewicz elected superior of the society in 1782. Pope Pius VII had resolved during his captivity in France to restore the Jesuits universally, and after his return to Rome he did so with little delay. On 7 August 1814, by the bull Sollicitudo omnium ecclesiarum, he reversed the suppression of the society, and therewith another Polish Jesuit, Thaddeus Brzozowski, who had been elected to Superior in Russia in 1805, acquired universal jurisdiction.

The period following the Restoration of the Jesuits in 1814 was marked by tremendous growth, as evidenced by the large number of Jesuit colleges and universities established in the 19th century. In the United States, 22 of the society's 28 universities were founded or taken over by the Jesuits during this time. It has been suggested that the experience of suppression served to heighten orthodoxy among the Jesuits upon restoration. While this claim is debatable, Jesuits were generally supportive of papal authority within the church, and some members were associated with the Ultramontanist movement and the declaration of Papal Infallibility in 1870.

In Switzerland, following the defeat of the Sonderbund Catholic defense alliance, the constitution was modified and Jesuits were banished in 1848. The ban was lifted on 20 May 1973, when 54.9% of voters accepted a referendum modifying the Constitution.^[87]

Early 20th century

In the Constitution of Norway from 1814, a relic from the earlier anti-Catholic laws of Denmark-Norway, Paragraph 2 originally read: "The Evangelical-Lutheran religion remains the public religion of the State. Those inhabitants, who confess thereto, are bound to raise their children to the same. Jesuits and monastic orders are not permitted. Jews are still prohibited from entry to the Realm." Jews were first allowed into the Realm in 1851 after the famous Norwegian poet Henrik Wergeland had campaigned for it. Monastic orders were permitted in 1897, but the ban on Jesuits was only lifted in 1956.^{[citation needed]}

Republican Spain in the 1930s passed laws banning the Jesuits on grounds that they were obedient to a power different from the state. Pope Pius XI wrote about this: "It was an expression of a soul deeply hostile to God and the Catholic religion, to have disbanded the Religious Orders that had taken a vow of obedience to an authority different from the legitimate authority of the State. In this way it was sought to do away with the Society of Jesus – which can well glory in being one of the soundest auxiliaries of the Chair of Saint Peter – with the hope, perhaps, of then being able with less difficulty to overthrow in the near future, the Christian faith and morale in the heart of the Spanish nation, which gave to the Church of God the grand and glorious figure of Ignatius Loyola."^[88]

Post–Vatican II

The 20th century witnessed both growth and decline. Following a trend within the Catholic priesthood at large, Jesuit numbers peaked in the 1950s and have declined steadily since. Meanwhile, the number of Jesuit institutions has grown considerably, due in large part to a post–Vatican II focus on the establishment of Jesuit secondary schools in inner-city areas and an increase in voluntary lay groups inspired in part by the Spiritual Exercises. Among the notable Jesuits of the 20th century, John Courtney Murray was called one of the "architects of the Second Vatican Council" and drafted what eventually became the Council's endorsement of religious freedom, Dignitatis Humanae Personae.

In Latin America, the Jesuits had significant influence in the development of liberation theology, a movement that was controversial in the Catholic community after the negative assessment of it by Pope John Paul II in 1984.^[89]

Under Superior General Pedro Arrupe, social justice and the preferential option for the poor emerged as dominant themes of the work of the Jesuits. When Arrupe was paralyzed by a stroke in 1981, Pope John Paul II, not entirely pleased with the progressive turn of the Jesuits, took the unusual step of appointing the venerable and aged Paolo Dezza for an interim to oversee "the authentic renewal of the Church",^[90] instead of the progressive American priest Vincent O'Keefe whom Arrupe had preferred.^[91] In 1983 John Paul gave leave for the Jesuits to appoint a successor to Arrupe.

On 16 November 1989, six Jesuit priests (Ignacio Ellacuría, Segundo Montes, Ignacio Martín-Baró, Joaquin López y López, Juan Ramon Moreno, and Amado López), Elba Ramos their housekeeper, and Celia Marisela Ramos her daughter, were murdered by the Salvadoran military on the campus of the University of Central America in San Salvador, El Salvador, because they had been labeled as subversives by the government.^[92] The assassinations galvanized the society's peace and justice movements, including annual protests at the Western Hemisphere Institute for Security Cooperation at Fort Benning, Georgia, United States, where several of the assassins had been trained under US government sponsorship.^[93]

On 21 February 2001, the Jesuit priest Avery Dulles, an internationally known author, lecturer, and theologian, was created a Cardinal of the Catholic Church by Pope John Paul II. The son of former Secretary of State John Foster Dulles, Avery Dulles was long known for his carefully reasoned argumentation and fidelity to the teaching office of the church. An author of 22 books and over 700 theological articles, Dulles died on 12 December 2008 at Fordham University, where he had taught for twenty years as the Laurence J. McGinley Professor of Religion and Society. He was, at his passing, one of ten Jesuit cardinals in the Catholic Church.

In 2002, Boston College president and Jesuit priest William P. Leahy initiated the Church in the 21st Century program as a means of moving the church "from crisis to renewal". The initiative has provided the society with a platform for examining issues brought about by the worldwide Catholic sex abuse cases, including the priesthood, celibacy, sexuality, women's roles, and the role of the laity.^[94]

Visit of Pope Benedict XVI to the Jesuit-run Pontifical Gregorian University

In April 2005, Thomas J. Reese, editor of the American Jesuit weekly magazine America, resigned at the request of the society. The move was widely published in the media as the result of pressure from the Vatican, following years of criticism by the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith on articles touching subjects such as HIV/AIDS, religious pluralism, homosexuality, and the right of life for the unborn. Following his resignation, Reese spent a year-long sabbatical at Santa Clara University before being named a fellow at the Woodstock Theological Center in Washington, D.C., and later Senior Analyst for the National Catholic Reporter. President Barack Obama appointed him to the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom in 2014 and again in 2016.^[95]

On 2 February 2006, Peter Hans Kolvenbach informed members of the Society of Jesus that, with the consent of Pope Benedict XVI, he intended to step down as Superior General in 2008, the year he would turn 80.

On 22 April 2006, Feast of Our Lady, Mother of the Society of Jesus, Pope Benedict XVI greeted thousands of Jesuits on pilgrimage to Rome, and took the opportunity to thank God "for having granted to your Company the gift of men of extraordinary sanctity and of exceptional apostolic zeal such as St Ignatius of Loyola, St Francis Xavier, and Bl Peter Faber." He said "St Ignatius of Loyola was above all a man of God, who gave the first place of his life to God, to his greater glory and his greater service. He was a man of profound prayer, which found its center and its culmination in the daily Eucharistic Celebration."^[96]

In May 2006, Benedict XVI also wrote a letter to Superior General Peter Hans Kolvenbach on the occasion of the 50th anniversary of Pope Pius XII's encyclical Haurietis aquas, on devotion to the Sacred Heart, because the Jesuits have always been "extremely active in the promotion of this essential devotion."^[97] In his 3 November 2006 visit to the Pontifical Gregorian University, Benedict XVI cited the university as "one of the greatest services that the Society of Jesus carries out for the universal Church".^[98]

The 35th General Congregation of the Society of Jesus convened on 5 January 2008, and elected Adolfo Nicolás as the new Superior General on 19 January 2008. In a letter to the Fathers of the Congregation, Benedict XVI wrote:^[99]

As my Predecessors have said to you on various occasions, the Church needs you, relies on you and continues to turn to you with trust, particularly to reach those physical and spiritual places which others do not reach or have difficulty in reaching. Paul VI's words remain engraved on your hearts: "Wherever in the Church, even in the most difficult and extreme fields, at the crossroads of ideologies, in the social trenches, there has been and there is confrontation between the burning exigencies of man and the perennial message of the Gospel, here also there have been, and there are, Jesuits" (Address to the 32nd General Congregation of the Jesuits, 3 December 1974; ORE, 12 December, n. 2, p. 4.)

Pope Francis, the first Jesuit pope

In 2013, Jesuit Cardinal Jorge Bergoglio became Pope Francis. Before he became Pope, he was appointed bishop when he was in "virtual estrangement from the Jesuits" since he was "seen as an enemy of liberation theology...and viewed by others as still far too orthodox", trying to protect Jesuits but not approving of their participation in violent groups.^{[100][101][102]} Once elected, there was an immediate reconciliation, and Pope Francis has been bringing the Jesuit simplicity, love for the poor, and service of the flock into the papacy.^[100]

On 2 October 2016, General Congregation 36 convened in Rome, convoked by Superior General Adolfo Nicolás, who had announced his intention to resign at age 80.^{[103][104][105]} On October 14, the 36th General Congregation of the Society of Jesus elected Arturo Sosa, a Venezuelan, as its thirty-first Superior General.^[106]

Ignatian spirituality

Main article: Ignatian spirituality

The spirituality practiced by the Jesuits, called Ignatian spirituality, ultimately based on the Catholic faith and the gospels, is drawn from the Constitutions, The Letters, and Autobiography, and most specially from Ignatius' Spiritual Exercises, whose purpose is "to conquer oneself and to regulate one's life in such a way that no decision is made under the influence of any inordinate attachment." The Exercises culminate in a contemplation whereby one develops a facility to "find God in all things."

Formation

Main article: Jesuit formation

The formation (training) of Jesuits seeks to prepare men spiritually, academically, and practically for the ministries they will be called to offer the church and world. Saint Ignatius was strongly influenced by the Renaissance, and he wanted Jesuits to be able to offer whatever ministries were most needed at any given moment and, especially, to be ready to respond to missions (assignments) from the pope. Formation for priesthood normally takes between eight and fourteen years, depending on the man's background and previous education, and final vows are taken several years after that, making Jesuit formation among the longest of any of the religious orders.

Government of the society

The society is headed by a Superior General with the formal title Praepositus Generalis, Latin for "provost-general", more commonly called Father General or General. He is elected by the General Congregation for life or until he resigns; he is confirmed by the Pope and has absolute authority in running the society. The current Superior General of the Jesuits is the Venezuelan Arturo Sosa who was elected on 14 October 2016.^[107]

The Father General is assisted by "assistants", four of whom are "assistants for provident care" and serve as general advisors and a sort of inner council, and several other regional assistants, each of whom heads an "assistancy", which is either a geographic area (for instance the North American Assistancy) or an area of ministry (for instance higher education). The assistants normally reside with Father General in Rome and along with others form an advisory council to the General. A vicar general and secretary of the society run day-to-day administration. The General is also required to have an admonitor, a confidential advisor whose task is to warn the General honestly and confidentially when he might be acting imprudently or contrary to the church's magisterium. The central staff of the General is known as the Curia.^[107]

The society is divided into geographic provinces, each of which is headed by a Provincial Superior, generally called Father Provincial, chosen by the General. He has authority over all Jesuits and ministries in his area, and is assisted by a socius who acts as a sort of secretary and chief of staff. With the approval of the General, the provincial appoints a novice master and a master of tertians to oversee formation, and rectors of local communities of Jesuits.^[108] For better cooperation and apostolic efficacy in each continent, the Jesuit provinces are grouped into six Jesuit Conferences worldwide.

Each Jesuit community within a province is normally headed by a rector who is assisted by a "minister", from the Latin for "servant", a priest who helps oversee the community's day-to-day needs.

The General Congregation is a meeting of all of the assistants, provincials, and additional representatives who are elected by the professed Jesuits of each province. It meets irregularly and rarely, normally to elect a new superior general and/or to take up some major policy issues for the Order. The General meets more regularly with smaller councils composed of just the provincials.

Habit and dress

Jesuits do not have an official habit. The society's Constitutions gives the following instructions: "The clothing too should have three characteristics: first, it should be proper; second, conformed to the usage of the country of residence; and third, not contradictory to the poverty we profess." (Const. 577)

Historically, a "Jesuit-style cassock" became "standard issue": it was wrapped around the body and was tied with a cincture, rather than the customary buttoned front. A tuftless biretta (only diocesan clergy wore tufts) and a ferraiolo (cape) completed the look. As such, though it was the common priestly dress of Ignatius' day, Jesuit garb appeared distinctive, and became identifiable over time. During the missionary periods of North America, the various native peoples referred to Jesuits as "Blackrobes" because of their black cassocks.

Today, most Jesuits in the United States wear the clerical collar and black clothing of ordinary priests, although some still wear the black cassock.^[109] Jesuits in tropical countries may use a white cassock when ministering outdoors.

Controversies

Power-seeking

The Monita Secreta (Secret Instructions of the Jesuits), published in 1612 and in 1614 in Kraków, is alleged to have been written by Claudio Acquaviva, the fifth general of the society, but was probably written by former Jesuit Jerome Zahorowski. It purports to describe the methods to be adopted by Jesuits for the acquisition of greater power and influence for the society and for the Roman Catholic Church. The Catholic Encyclopedia states the book is a forgery, fabricated to ascribe a sinister reputation to the Society of Jesus.^[110]

Political intrigue

The Jesuits were temporarily banished from France in 1594 after a man named Jean Châtel tried to assassinate the king of France, Henri IV. Under questioning, Châtel revealed that he had been educated by the Jesuits of the Collège de Clermont. The Jesuits were accused of inspiring Châtel's attack. Two of his former teachers were exiled and a third was hanged.^[111] The Collège de Clermont was closed, and the building was confiscated. The Jesuits were banned from France, although this ban was quickly lifted.

In England, Henry Garnet, one of the leading English Jesuits, was hanged for misprision of treason because of his knowledge of the Gunpowder Plot (1605). The Plot was the attempted assassination of King James I of England and VI of Scotland, his family, and most of the Protestant aristocracy in a single attack, by exploding the Houses of Parliament. Another Jesuit, Oswald Tesimond, managed to escape arrest for his involvement in this plot.^[112]

Casuistic justification

Jesuits have been accused of using casuistry to obtain justifications for unjustifiable actions (cf. formulary controversy and Lettres Provinciales, by Blaise Pascal).^[113] Hence, the Concise Oxford Dictionary of the English language lists "equivocating" as a secondary denotation of the word "Jesuit". Modern critics of the Society of Jesus include Avro Manhattan, Alberto Rivera, and Malachi Martin, the latter being the author of The Jesuits: The Society of Jesus and the Betrayal of the Roman Catholic Church (1987).^[114]

Anti-Semitism

Although in the first 30 years of the existence of the Society of Jesus there were many Jesuits who were conversos (Catholic-convert Jews), an anti-converso faction led to the Decree de genere (1593) which proclaimed that either Jewish or Muslim ancestry, no matter how distant, was an insurmountable impediment for admission to the Society of Jesus.^[115] This new rule was contrary to the original wishes of Ignatius who "said that he would take it as a special grace from our Lord to come from Jewish lineage."^[116] The 16th-century Decree de genere remained in exclusive force until it was repealed in 1946.^[b]

Theological debates

Within the Roman Catholic Church, there has existed a sometimes tense relationship between Jesuits and the Holy See due to questioning of official church teaching and papal directives, such as those on abortion,^[119][120] birth control,^{[121][122][123][124]} women deacons,^[125] homosexuality, and liberation theology.^[126][127] Usually, this theological free thinking is academically oriented, being prevalent at the university level. From this standpoint, the function of this debate is less to challenge the magisterium than to publicize the results of historical research or to illustrate the church's ability to compromise in a pluralist society based on shared values that do not always align with religious teachings.^[128] This has not prevented Popes from appointing Jesuits to powerful positions in the church. John Paul II and Benedict XVI together appointed ten Jesuit cardinals to notable jobs. Under Benedict, Archbishop Luis Ladaria Ferrer was Secretary of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith and Federico Lombardi was Vatican Press Secretary.^[129]

Child sexual abuse

Members of the Society of Jesus has been implicated in the Catholic Church sexual abuse cases; please see Sexual abuse scandal in the Society of Jesus for more information.

Nazi persecution

Main article: Jesuits and Nazi Germany

The Catholic Church faced persecution in Nazi Germany. Hitler was anticlerical and had particular disdain for the Jesuits. According to John Pollard, the Jesuits' "ethos represented the most intransigent opposition to the philosophy of Nazism",^[130] and so the Nazis considered them as one of their most dangerous enemies. A Jesuit college in the city of Innsbruck served as a center for anti-Nazi resistance and was closed down by the Nazis in 1938.^[131] Jesuits were a target for Gestapo persecution, and many Jesuit priests were deported to concentration camps.^[132] Jesuits made up the largest contingent of clergy imprisoned in the Priest Barracks of Dachau Concentration Camp.^[133] Lapomarda lists some 30 Jesuits as having died at Dachau.^[134] Of the total of 152 Jesuits murdered by the Nazis across Europe, 43 died in the concentration camps and an additional 27 died from captivity or its results.^[135]

The Superior General of Jesuits at the outbreak of war was Wlodzimierz Ledochowski, a Pole. The Nazi persecution of the Catholic Church in Poland was particularly severe. Vincent Lapomarda wrote that Ledochowski helped "stiffen the general attitude of the Jesuits against the Nazis" and that he permitted Vatican Radio to carry on its campaign against the Nazis in Poland. Vatican Radio was run by the Jesuit Filippo Soccorsi and spoke out against Nazi oppression, particularly with regard to Poland and to Vichy-French anti-Semitism.^[136]

Jesuit Alfred Delp, member of the Kreisau Circle that operated within Nazi Germany; he was executed in February 1945.^[137]^{[verification needed]}

Several Jesuits were prominent in the small German Resistance.^[138] Among the central membership of the Kreisau Circle of the Resistance were the Jesuit priests Augustin Rösch, Alfred Delp, and Lothar König.^[139] The Bavarian Jesuit Provincial, Augustin Rosch, ended the war on death row for his role in the July Plot to overthrow Hitler. Another non-military German Resistance group, dubbed the "Frau Solf Tea Party" by the Gestapo, included the Jesuit priest Friedrich Erxleben.^[140] The German Jesuit Robert Leiber acted as intermediary between Pius XII and the German Resistance.^[141][142]

Among the Jesuit victims of the Nazis, Germany's Rupert Mayer has been beatified. Mayer was a Bavarian Jesuit who clashed with the Nazis as early as 1923. Continuing his critique following Hitler's rise to power, Mayer was imprisoned in 1939 and sent to Sachsenhausen concentration camp. As his health declined, the Nazis feared the creation of a martyr and sent him to the Abbey of Ettal in 1940. There he continued to give sermons and lectures against the evils of the Nazi régime, until his death in 1945.^[143][144]

Rescue efforts during the Holocaust

Further information: Rescue of Jews by Catholics during the Holocaust

In his history of the heroes of the Holocaust, the Jewish historian Martin Gilbert notes that in every country under German occupation, priests played a major part in rescuing Jews, and that the Jesuits were one of the Catholic Orders that hid Jewish children in monasteries and schools to protect them from the Nazis.^[145][146] Fourteen Jesuit priests have been formally recognized by Yad Vashem, the Holocaust Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority in Jerusalem, for risking their lives to save Jews during the Holocaust of World War II: Roger Braun (1910–1981) of France;^[147] Pierre Chaillet (1900–1972) of France;^[148] Jean-Baptist De Coster (1896–1968) of Belgium;^[149] Jean Fleury (1905–1982) of France;^[150] Emile Gessler (1891–1958) of Belgium; Jean-Baptiste Janssens (1889–1964) of Belgium; Alphonse Lambrette (1884–1970) of Belgium; Emile Planckaert (1906–2006) of France; Jacob Raile (1894–1949) of Hungary; Henri Revol (1904–1992) of France; Adam Sztark (1907–1942) of Poland; Henri Van Oostayen (1906–1945) of Belgium; Ioannes Marangas (1901–1989) of Greece; and Raffaele de Chantuz Cubbe (1904–1983) of Italy.^[151]

Several other Jesuits are known to have rescued or given refuge to Jews during that period.^[152] A plaque commemorating the 152 Jesuit priests who gave of their lives during the Holocaust was installed in April 2007 at the Jesuits' Rockhurst University in Kansas City, Missouri, United States.

In science

Main article: List of Jesuit scientists

Jesuit scholars in China. Top: Matteo Ricci, Adam Schall and Ferdinand Verbiest (1623–88); Bottom: Paul Siu (Xu Guangqi), Colao or Prime Minister of State, and his granddaughter Candide Hiu.

Between the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries, the teaching of science in Jesuit schools, as laid down in the Ratio atque Institutio Studiorum Societatis Iesu [The Official Plan of studies for the Society of Jesus] of 1599, was almost entirely based on the works of Aristotle.*Translation of the Ratio Studiorum by Allan P. Farrell, S.J., available in PDF or HTML

The Jesuits, nevertheless, have made numerous significant contributions to the development of science. For example, the Jesuits have dedicated significant study to earthquakes, and seismology has been described as "the Jesuit science".^[153] The Jesuits have been described as "the single most important contributor to experimental physics in the seventeenth century."^[154] According to Jonathan Wright in his book God's Soldiers, by the eighteenth century the Jesuits had "contributed to the development of pendulum clocks, pantographs, barometers, reflecting telescopes and microscopes – to scientific fields as various as magnetism, optics and electricity. They observed, in some cases before anyone else, the colored bands on Jupiter's surface, the Andromeda nebula, and Saturn's rings. They theorized about the circulation of the blood (independently of Harvey), the theoretical possibility of flight, the way the moon affected the tides, and the wave-like nature of light."^[155]

The Jesuit China missions of the 16th and 17th centuries introduced Western science and astronomy. One modern historian writes that in late Ming courts, the Jesuits were "regarded as impressive especially for their knowledge of astronomy, calendar-making, mathematics, hydraulics, and geography."^[156] The Society of Jesus introduced, according to Thomas Woods, "a substantial body of scientific knowledge and a vast array of mental tools for understanding the physical universe, including the Euclidean geometry that made planetary motion comprehensible."^[157] Another expert quoted by Woods said the scientific revolution brought by the Jesuits coincided with a time when science was at a very low level in China.

Notable members

Main article: List of Jesuits

North American Martyrs

Notable Jesuits include missionaries, educators, scientists, artists, philosophers, and Pope Francis. Among many distinguished early Jesuits was Francis Xavier, a missionary to Asia who converted more people to Catholicism than anyone before, and Robert Bellarmine, a doctor of the Church. José de Anchieta and Manuel da Nóbrega, founders of the city of São Paulo, Brazil, were Jesuit priests. Another famous Jesuit was Jean de Brébeuf, a French missionary who was martyred during the 17th century in what was once New France (now Ontario) in Canada.

In Spanish America, José de Acosta wrote a major work on early Peru and New Spain with important material on indigenous peoples. In South America, Saint Peter Claver was notable for his mission to African slaves, building on the work of Alonso de Sandoval (fr). Francisco Javier Clavijero was expelled from New Spain during the Suppression of the Society of Jesus in 1767 and wrote an important history of Mexico during his exile in Italy. Eusebio Kino is renowned in the southwestern United States and northern Mexico (an area then called the Pimeria Alta). He founded numerous missions and served as the peace-bringer between the tribes and the government of New Spain. Antonio Ruiz de Montoya was an important missionary in the Jesuit reductions of Paraguay.

Baltasar Gracián was a 17th-century Spanish Jesuit and baroque prose writer and philosopher. He was born in Belmonte, near Calatayud (Aragon). His writings, particularly El Criticón (1651-7) and Oráculo Manual y Arte de Prudencia ("The Art of Prudence", 1647) were lauded by Schopenhauer and Nietzsche.

In Scotland, John Ogilvie (saint), a Jesuit, is the nation's only native saint.

There are notable Jesuits in the modern era, the most prominent being Pope Francis. Cardinal Jorge Bergoglio of Argentina was elected Pope Francis on 13 March 2013 and is the first Jesuit to be elected pope.^[158]

Gerard Manley Hopkins was one of the first English poets to use sprung verse. Anthony de Mello was a Jesuit priest and psychotherapist who became widely known for his books which introduced Westerners to the East Indian traditions of spirituality.

The Feast of All Jesuit Saints and Blesseds is celebrated on November 5.^[159]

Institutions

Educational institutions

Although the work of the Jesuits today embraces a wide variety of apostolates, ministries, and civil occupations, they are probably most well known for their educational work. Since the inception of the order, Jesuits have been teachers. Besides serving on the faculty of Catholic and secular schools, the Jesuits are the Catholic religious order with the second highest number of schools which they run: 168 tertiary institutions in 40 countries and 324 secondary schools in 55 countries. (The Brothers of the Christian Schools have over 560 Lasallian educational institutions.) They also run elementary schools at which they are less likely to teach. Many of the schools are named after Francis Xavier and other prominent Jesuits.

Jesuit educational institutions aim to promote the values of Eloquentia Perfecta. This is a Jesuit tradition that focuses on cultivating a person as a whole, as one learns to speak and write for the common good.

Jesuit universities gallery

Fordham University, USA

University of Ingolstadt, Germany

St. Xavier's College, Mumbai, India

St. Xavier's College, Kolkata, India

Sophia University, Tokyo, Japan

University of Deusto, Bilbao, Spain

Comillas Pontifical University, Spain

Fairfield University, USA

Georgetown University, USA

Boston College, USA

Loyola College, Chennai

Pontifical Gregorian U., Rome

St. Joseph University, Beirut

University of Pacific, Peru

Sogang University, Seoul

Université de Namur, Belgium

UBISINOS, Brazil

St. Mary's U., Halifax

Regis College, U. of Toronto

Loyola College Montreal

Pontifical Xaverian U., Bogota

Pontifical Catholic U., Ecuador

Social and development institutions

Since the Second Vatican Council and their own General Congregations which followed it, Jesuits have become increasingly involved in works directed primarily toward social and economic development for the poor and marginalized.^[160] Included in this would be research, training, advocacy, and action for human development, as well as direct services. Most Jesuit schools have an office that fosters social awareness and social service in the classroom and through extracurricular programs, usually detailed on their websites. The Jesuits also run over 500 notable or stand-alone social or economic development centres in 56 countries around the world.

Since the Second Vatican Council, Jesuits have founded many schools with the special purpose of serving the poor or marginalized, as among the Dalits in India and the Cristo Rey Network in the United States.

Publications

The Sanctuary of Loyola in Azpeitia, Basque Country, Spain, the main Jesuit shrine in the birthplace of Saint Ignatius of Loyola

Jesuits are also known for their involvement in publications. La Civiltà Cattolica, a periodical produced in Rome by the Jesuits, has often been used as a semi-official platform for popes and Vatican officials to float ideas for discussion or hint at future statements or positions. In the United States, America magazine has long had a prominent place in Catholic intellectual circles. Most Jesuit colleges and universities have their own presses which produce a variety of books, book series, textbooks, and academic publications. Ignatius Press, founded by a Jesuit, is an independent publisher of Catholic books, most of which are of the popular academic or lay-intellectual variety.

In Australia, the Jesuits produce a number of magazines, including Eureka Street, Madonna, Australian Catholics, and Province Express.

In Sweden the Catholic cultural magazine Signum, edited by the Newman Institute, covers a broad spectrum of issues concerning faith, culture, research, and society. The printed version of Signum is published eight times per year. In addition, there is an up-to-date website (www.signum.se) containing an article archive dating from 1975 to the present.

In popular culture

The character Father Mulcahy is a Jesuit priest in the novel, movie, and TV show M*A*S*H franchise.
The character Damien Karras is a Jesuit priest from the book and movie The Exorcist.
The 1986 British drama film The Mission revolves around the experiences of a Jesuit missionary in 18th century South America.
Antonio Banderas plays a Jesuit priest in The Body (2001 film).
Édgar Ramírez plays a Jesuit priest in Deliver Us from Evil (2014 film).
The Martin Scorsese film Silence is based on two Jesuit priests who travel to Japan to spread Christianity.
The main protagonist in James Blish's 1958 novel A Case of Conscience is a Jesuit priest.
Aramis is made Superior General of the Jesuits in A. Dumas' The Man in the Iron Mask (1850).
Mary Doria Russell's 1996 novel The Sparrow follows a Jesuit space mission to make contact with a newfound planet; the majority of the characters are Jesuits.
Angelo Cardinal Mennoni is the head of the Society of Jesus in A. J. Quinnell's 1987 novel The Name of the Father.

See also

· Catholicism portal

Notes

Spanish: "todo el que quiera militar para Dios".^[3]

· Jesuit scholar John Padberg states that the restriction on Jewish/Muslim converts was limited only to the degree of parentage. Fourteen years later this was extended back to the fifth degree. Over time the restriction relating to Muslim ancestry was dropped.^[117] In 1923, the 27th Jesuit General Congregation specified that "The impediment of origin extends to all who are descended from the Jewish race, unless it is clear that their father, grandfather, and great grandfather have belonged to the Catholic Church." In 1946, the 29th General Congregation dropped the requirement but still called for "cautions to be exercised before admitting a candidate about whom there is some doubt as to the character of his hereditary background." Robert Aleksander Maryks interprets the 1593 "Decree de genere" as preventing, despite Ignatius' desires, any Jewish or Muslim conversos and, by extension, any person with Jewish or Muslim ancestry, no matter how distant, from admission to the Society of Jesus.^[118]

References

Footnotes

Cheney, David M. (13 April 2017). "Society of Jesus (Institute of Consecrated Life)". Catholic-Hierarchy. Kansas City. Retrieved 14 April 2017.
· Spiteri, Stephen C. (2016). Baroque Routes. University of Malta. p. 16.
· (in Spanish) See Fórmula del Instituto on Google Books.
· O'Malley 2006, p. xxxv.
· "Poverty And Chastity For Every Occasion". National Public Radio. Washington, D.C. 5 March 2010. Retrieved 15 May 2013.
· "The Jesuits: 'God's marines'". The Week. New York. 23 March 2013. Retrieved 19 June 2017.
· "About Our Jesuits". Ignatius House Retreat Center. Atlanta, Georgia. Retrieved 15 May 2013.
· "News on the elections of the new Superior General". Sjweb.info. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
· "africa.reuters.com, Spaniard becomes Jesuits' new "black pope"". Africa.reuters.com. 9 February 2009. Archived from the original on 23 February 2011. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
· "Curia Generalizia of the Society of Jesus". Sjweb.info. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
· Curia Generalis, Society of Jesus (10 April 2013). "From the Curia - THE SOCIETY OF JESUS IN NUMBERS". Digital News Service SJ. The Jesuit Portal – Society of Jesus Homepage. 17 (10). Retrieved 27 June 2013. The new statistics of the Society of Jesus as of January 1st, 2013 have been published. [...] As of 1 January 2013, the total number of Jesuits was 17,287 [...]—a net loss of 337 members from 1 January 2012.
· Lapitan, Giselle (22 May 2012). "The changing face of the Jesuits". Province Express. Archived from the original on 28 March 2016. Retrieved 27 June 2013.
· Gray, Mark M. (9 January 2015). "Nineteen Sixty-four: By the Numbers: Jesuit Demography". nineteensixty-four.blogspot.com. CARA. Retrieved 14 April 2017.
· Raper, Mark (23 May 2012). "Changing to best serve the universal mission". Jesuit Asia Pacific Conference. Retrieved 27 June 2013.
· Reilly, Patrick (28 July 2016). "American Jesuits Are in a Free Fall, and the Crisis is Getting Worse". National Catholic Register. Retrieved 16 June 2017.
· Puca, Pasquale (30 January 2008). "St. Ignatius of Loyola and the Development of the Society of Jesus". L'Osservatore Romano Weekly Edition in English. The Cathedral Foundation: 12. Retrieved 23 February 2010.
· http://www.uscatholic.org/articles/201609/do-we-need-priests-run-catholic-colleges-30773
· Jones, Autumn (30 December 2014). "The New Brand of Jesuit Universities". The Atlantic. Retrieved 22 March 2018.
· "St. Aloysius College mission statement". Staloysius.nsw.edu.au. Retrieved 21 March 2018.
· "Time Magazine on "Men for Others"". America Magazine. 2009-11-10. Retrieved 2017-05-30.
· Text of the Formula of the Institute as approved by Pope Paul III in 1540^{[permanent dead link]}, Boston College, Institute for Advanced Jesuit Studies.
· O'Malley 1993, p. 5.
· Michael Servetus Research Website that includes graphical documents in the University of Paris of: Ignations of Loyola, Francis Xavier, Alfonso Salmerón, Nicholas Bobadilla, Peter Faber and Simao Rodrigues, as well as Michael de Villanueva ("Servetus")
· Campbell 1921, p. 24.
· Coyle 1908, p. 142.
· "Chapter 2". www.reformation.org. Retrieved 2017-05-30.
· Brading 1991, p. 166.
· Campbell 1921, p. 7.
· Höpfl 2004, p. 426.
· Campbell 1921, p. 72.
· (in Latin) Jesuitas (1583). "SEXTA PARS - CAP. 1". Constitutiones Societatis Iesu: cum earum declarationibus.
· Ignatius of Loyola (1970). The constitutions of the society of Jesus. Translated by Ganss, George E. Institute of Jesuit Sources. p. 249. Carried and directed by Divine Providence through the agency of the superior as if he were a lifeless body which allows itself to be carried to any place and to be treated in any manner desired.
· Painter 1903, p. 167.
· Pollen 1912.
· Campbell 1921, p. 857.
· Gonzalez 1985, p. 144.
· Mullins, Mark R., ed. (2003). Handbook of Christianity in Japan. Leiden: Brill. pp. 9–10. ISBN 9004131566. OCLC 191931641.
· Dussel, Enrique (1981). The History of the Church in Latin America. New York: NYU Press. p. 60.
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· Ott, Michael (1913), "Charles-Thomas Maillard de Tournon", Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. XV, New York: Encyclopedia Press.
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· Devine 1925, p. 1.
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· Devine 1925, p. 5.
· Delaney & Nicholls 1989, p. 1.
· Delaney & Nicholls 1989, p. 2.
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· Delaney & Nicholls 1989, p. 3.
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· Kennedy 1950, p. 43.
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· Kennedy 1950, p. 46.
· Kennedy 1950, p. 49.
· Kennedy 1950, p. 53.
· The Provincial Statutes of Canada: anno undecimo et duodecimo Victoriae Reginae (Montreal: Stewart Derbishire and George Desbarats, 1848), pp. 1483, 1484
· Jesuits at thecanadianencyclopedia.ca
· Brading 1991, p. 242.
· Konrad 1980.
· Cline 1997, p. 250.
· Van Handel 1991.
· Carlos María de Bustamante, Los tres siglos de México durante el gobierno español, hasta la entrada del ejército trigarante. Obra escrita en Roma por el P. Andrés Cavo, de la Compañía de Jesús; publicada con notas y suplemento. 4 vols. Mexico 1836–38.
· Warren 1973, p. 84.
· Diego Luis de Motezuma, Corona mexicana, o historia de los Motezumas, por el Padre Diego Luis de Motezuma de la Compañía de Jesús. Madrid 1914.
· Mecham 1966, pp. 358–359.
· Brading 1991, p. 185.
· Sandoval 2008.
· Brading 1991, pp. 167–169.
· Ganson, Barbara (2003), The Guarani under Spanish Rule, Stanford: Stanford University Press, pp 3, 52-53.
· Sacks 1990, pp. 11–14.
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· Pius XI, dilectissima Nobis, 1933
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· Voltaire (1769), "XXXI", Histoire du Parlement de Paris, Châtel fut écartelé, le jésuite Guignard fut pendu; et ce qui est bien étrange, Jouvency, dans son Histoire des Jésuites, le regarde comme un martyr et le compare à Jésus-Christ. Le régent de Châtel, nommé Guéret, et un autre jésuite, nommé Hay, ne furent condamnés qu’à un bannissement perpétuel.
· Fraser 2005, p. 448.
· Nelson 1981, p. 190.
· see Malachi Martin (1987) The Jesuits: The Society of Jesus and the Betrayal of the Roman Catholic Church, Simon & Schuster, Linden Press, New York, 1987, ISBN 0-671-54505-1
· Rosa, De La; Coello, Alexandre (1932). "El Estatuto de Limpieza de Sangre de la Compañía de Jesús (1593) y su influencia en el Perú Colonial". Archivum historicum Societatis Iesu. Institutum Societatis Iesu: 45–93. ISSN 0037-8887.
· Reites 1981, p. 17.
· Padberg 1994, p. 204.
· Maryks 2010, p. xxviii.
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· Worthen, Molly (15 September 2012). "The Power of Political Communion". The New York Times. Retrieved 18 September 2012.
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· Pollard 2006, p. 357.
· Pollard 2006, p. 356.
· Pollard 2006, p. 356–357.
· Lapomarda 2005, pp. 140–141.
· Lapomarda 2005, appx. A.
· Lapomarda 2005, p. 33, appx. A.
· Lapomarda 2005, pp. 266–267.
· Anton Gill; An Honourable Defeat; A History of the German Resistance to Hitler; Heinemann; London; 1994; p. 264.
· Lapomarda 2005, p. 33.
· Peter Hoffmann; The History of the German Resistance 1933–1945; 3rd Edn (First English Edn); McDonald & Jane's; London; 1977; p. 33.
· Shirer 1960, pp. 1025–1026.
· Peter Hoffmann; The History of the German Resistance 1933–1945; 3rd Edn (First English Edn); McDonald & Jane's; London; 1977; p. 160
· Shirer 1960, pp. 648–649.
· "Pontiff Praises a Bavarian Foe of Nazism". Zenit News Agency. Retrieved 2013-11-06.
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· Martin Gilbert; The Righteous - The Unsung Heroes of the Holocaust; Doubleday; 2002; ISBN 0-385-60100-X; p. 299
· Martin Gilbert; The Righteous: the Unsung Heroes of the Holocaust; Holt Paperback; New York; 2004; Preface
· Braun Roger (1910–1981); Yad Vashem
· Chaillet Pierre (1900–1972); Yad Vashem
· De Coster, Father Jean-Baptiste; Yad Vashem
· Fleury Jean (1905–1982); Yad Vashem
· Vincent A. Lapomarda, The Jesuits and the Third Reich (Edward Mellen Press, 1989).
· "Hiatt Holocaust Collection". Holycross.edu. Archived from the original on 28 May 2010. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
· Hough 2007, p. 68.
· Ashworth 1986, p. 154.
· Wright 2004, p. 200.
· Ebrey 2010, p. 212.
· Woods 2005, p. 101.
· Ivereigh 2014, pp. 1–2.
· "November 5: Feast of all Jesuit Saints and Blessed | European Tertianship". tertianship.eu. Retrieved 2017-05-30.

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Further reading

Surveys

Bangert, William V. A History of the Society of Jesus (2nd ed. 1958) 552 pp.
Barthel, Manfred. Jesuits: History & Legend of the Society of Jesus (1984) 347 pp. online free
Chapple, Christopher. Jesuit Tradition in Education & Missions: A 450-Year Perspective (1993), 290 pp.
Mitchell, David. Jesuits: A History (1981) 320 pp.
Molina, J. Michelle. To Overcome Oneself: The Jesuit Ethic and Spirit of Global Expansion, 1520-1767 (2013) online
O'Malley, John W. The Jesuits: A History from Ignatius to the Present (2014), 138 pp
Worcester, Thomas. ed. The Cambridge Companion to the Jesuits (2008), to 1773
Wright, Jonathan. God's Soldiers: Adventure, Politics, Intrigue & Power: A History of the Jesuits (2004) 368 pp online free

Specialized studies

Alden, Dauril. Making of an Enterprise: The Society of Jesus in Portugal, Its Empire & Beyond, 1540–1750 (1996) 707pp
Brockey, Liam Matthew. Journey to the East: The Jesuit Mission to China, 1579–1724 (2007) 496 pp.
Brodrick James (1940). The Origin of the Jesuits. Originally Published Longmans Green., Special Edition Published 1997 by Loyola University Press, US - ISBN 0829409300
Brodrick, James. Saint Francis Xavier (1506–1552) (1952).
Brodrick, James. Saint Ignatius Loyola: The Pilgrim Years 1491–1538 (1998)
Burson, Jeffrey D. and Jonathan Wright, eds. The Jesuit Suppression in Global Context: Causes, Events, and Consequences (Cambridge UP, 2015) 297.pp
Bygott, Ursula M. L. With Pen & Tongue: The Jesuits in Australia, 1865–1939 (1980) 423 pp.
Dalmases, Cándido de. Ignatius of Loyola, Founder of the Jesuits: His Life & Work (1985) 362 pp.
Caraman, Philip. Ignatius Loyola: A Biography of the Founder of the Jesuits (1990), 222 pp.
Edwards, Francis. Jesuits in England from 1580 to the Present Day (1985) 333 pp.
Edwards, Francis. Robert Persons: The Biography of an Elizabethan Jesuit, 1546–1610 (1995) 411 pp.
Healy, Róisin. Jesuit Specter in Imperial Germany (2003) 263 pp.
Höpfl, Harro. Jesuit Political Thought: The Society of Jesus & the State, c. 1540-1640 (2004) 406 pp.
Hsia, Ronnie Po-chia. "Jesuit Foreign Missions. A Historiographical Essay." Journal of Jesuit Studies(2014) 1#1 pp: 47–65.
Kaiser, Robert Blair. Inside the Jesuits: How Pope Francis is Changing the Church and the World (Rowman & Littlefield, 2014)
Klaiber, Jeffrey. The Jesuits in Latin America: 1549-2000:: 450 Years of Inculturation, Defense of Human Rights, and Prophetic Witness. St Louis, MO: Institute of Jesuit Sources 2009.
Lapomarda, Vincent A., The Catholic Bishops of Europe and the Nazi Persecutions of Catholics and Jews, The Edwin Mellen Press (2012)
McCoog, Thomas M., ed. Mercurian Project: Forming Jesuit Culture: 1573–1580 (2004) 992 pp.; 30 advanced essays by scholars
Martin, A. Lynn. Jesuit Mind. The Mentality of an Elite in Early Modern France (1988) 256 pp.
O'Malley, John. "The Society of Jesus." in R. Po-chia Hsia, ed., A Companion to the Reformation World (2004) pp. 223–36.
O'Malley, John W. ed. Saints or Devils Incarnate? Studies in Jesuit History (2013) 312 pp
Parkman, Francis (1867). The Jesuits in North America in the Seventeenth Century (PDF). p. 637.
Pomplun, Trent. "Jesuit on the Roof of the World: Ippolito Desideri's Mission to Tibet." Oxford University Press (2010).
Roberts, Ian D. Harvest of Hope: Jesuit Collegiate Education in England, 1794–1914 (1996) 253 pp.
Ronan, Charles E. and Bonnie B. C. Oh, eds. East Meets West: The Jesuits in China, 1582–1773 (1988), 332 pp.
Ross, Andrew C. Vision Betrayed: The Jesuits in Japan & China, 1542–1742 (1994) 216 pp.
Santich, Jan Joseph. Missio Moscovitica: The Role of the Jesuits in the Westernization of Russia, 1582–1689 (1995) 255 pp.
Wright, Jonathan. "From Immolation to Restoration: The Jesuits, 1773–1814." Theological Studies (2014) 75#4 pp. 729–745.

United States

Cushner, Nicholas P. Soldiers of God: The Jesuits in Colonial America, 1565-1767 (2002) 402 pp.
Garraghan, Gilbert J. The Jesuits Of The Middle United States (3 vol 1938) covers Midwest from 1800 to 1919 vol 1 online, ; vol 2; vol 3
McDonough, Peter. Men astutely trained : a history of the Jesuits in the American century (1994), covers 1900 to 1960s; online free
Schroth, Raymond A. The American Jesuits: A History (2009)

Primary sources

Desideri, Ippolito. "Mission to Tibet: The Extraordinary Eighteenth-Century Account of Father Ippolito Desideri." Translated by Michael J. Sweet. Edited by Leonard Zwilling. Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2010.
Donnelly, John Patrick, ed. Jesuit Writings of the Early Modern Period: 1540–1640 (2006)

In German

Klaus Schatz. Geschichte der deutschen Jesuiten: Bd. 1: 1814–1872 Münster: Aschendorff Verlag, 2013. XXX, 274 S. ISBN 978-3-402-12964-7. online review
Schatz. Geschichte der deutschen Jesuiten: Bd. 2: 1872–1917
Schatz. Geschichte der deutschen Jesuiten: Bd. 3: 1917–1945
Schatz. Geschichte der deutschen Jesuiten: Bd. 4: 1945–1983
Schatz. Geschichte der deutschen Jesuiten: Bd. 5: Quellen, Glossar, Biogramme, Gesamtregister

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Society of Jesus.

Catholic Church documents

Jesuit documents

The Jesuit Ratio Studiorum of 1599
^[permanent dead link] The Jesuit Mission Press in Japan, 1591–1610
Letter of the Jesuit Social Justice Secretariat to the leaders of the G8, July 2005
The Spiritual Exercises of St. Ignatius of Loyola

Other links

The BBC Radio 4 In Our Time programme on 18 January 2007 was devoted to the early history and educational role of the Jesuits; the programme's website offers a free podcast and 'listen again' service In Our Time website
"The Jesuit Curia in Rome". Retrieved 2 April 2012.
"Archivum Romanum Societatis Iesu - Jesuit Archive in Rome". Retrieved 2 July 2013.
"Society of Jesus" section of Wikisource's Roman Catholicism portal.


v t e Society of Jesus
History		Protestant Reformation Counter-Reformation Spiritual Exercises of Ignatius of Loyola Ad maiorem Dei gloriam Magis Regimini militantis Ecclesiae Exposcit debitum Suppression of the Society of Jesus List of Jesuits
Saints		José de Anchieta Modeste Andlauer Edmund Arrowsmith Robert Bellarmine John Berchmans Jacques Berthieu Andrew Bobola Francis Borgia John de Brebeuf Alexander Briant John de Britto Edmund Campion Peter Canisius Juan del Castillo Noël Chabanel Peter Claver Claude de la Colombiere Anthony Daniel Paul Denn Philip Evans Peter Faber Thomas Garnet Charles Garnier Aloysius Gonzaga ( Roque González de Santa Cruz John Soan de Goto Rene Goupil Melchior Grodziecki Alberto Hurtado Rémy Isoré Ignatius of Loyola Francis Jerome Isaac Jogues James Kisai Stanislaus Kostka Jean de Lalande Gabriel Lalemant David Lewis Ignatius of Loyola Lèon-Ignance Mangin Paul Miki Henry Morse John Ogilvie Nicholas Owen Joseph Pignatelli István Pongrácz Bernardino Realino John Francis Regis Alonso Rodriguez Alphonsus Rodriguez José María Rubio Robert Southwell André de Soveral Henry Walpole Francis Xavier
Popes		Francis
Theology		Luis de Molina Francisco Suárez Jean Daniélou Karl Rahner Pierre Teilhard de Chardin Henri de Lubac John Courtney Murray Joseph Fitzmyer List of Jesuit theologians
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Review: "American Jesuits and the World"

Jul 19, 2016

by Michael Sean Winters

Tomorrow, I shall conclude this review.

John McGreevy's 'American Jesuits and the World' tells of the Jesuit contribution to global Catholicism

Robert Emmett Curran September 28, 2016

American Jesuits and the Worldby John McGreevy

Princeton University Press. 300p $23.00

Society of Jesus

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"Jesuit" redirects here. For the punk band, see Jesuit (band).

This article is about the Society of Jesus, also known as Jesuits. For philosophy concerning the teachings of Jesus, see Jesuism.

Society of Jesus

Abbreviation	SJ, Jesuits
Formation	27 September 1540
Founder	Ignatius of Loyola Francis Xavier Peter Faber
Founded at	Paris, France officialized in Rome
Type	Catholic religious order
Location	4 Borgo Santo Spirito, Rome
Coordinates	41°54′4.9″N 12°27′38.2″E Coordinates: 41°54′4.9″N 12°27′38.2″E
Members	16,378^[1]
Superior General	Arturo Sosa
Website	www.sjweb.info
Remarks	Church of the Gesù is the Mother Church of the Jesuits, next to which Ignatius had his office

Part of a series on the

Society of Jesus

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Catholicism portal

The Church of the Gesù, located in Rome, is the mother church of the Jesuits.

In 2013, Jorge Mario Bergoglio became the first Jesuit to be elected Pope, taking the name Pope Francis.

Contents

Statistics

Jesuits in the world — January 2013^[11]
Region	Jesuits	Percentage
Africa	1,509	9%
South Latin America	1,221	7%
North Latin America	1,226	7%
South Asia	4,016	23%
Asia-Pacific	1,639	9%
Central and East Europe	1,641	10%
South Europe	2,027	12%
West Europe	1,541	9%
North America	2,467	14%

Formula of the Institute

Ignatius of Loyola

Ignatius receiving papal bull

History

Foundation

Church of Saint-Pierre de Montmartre, Paris

Francis Xavier

Jesuits at Akbar's court in India, c. 1605

Early works

Ratio Studiorum, 1598

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